Progress 09/15/03 to 09/14/07
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Conservative estimates suggest that 28 percent of homeowners in Alaskan communities of less than 1000 currently lack piped water and sewer (Laderach, 2006). A number of villages like the Yupik Eskimo community of Eek (population 300), located 35 air miles south of Bethel and approximately 12 miles from the mouth of the Kuskokwim River, Western Alaska, have no running water other than that provided to the school and clinic. Many families live in small, crowded homes, with untreated water stored in a *barrel*, typically a non-food grade trash can. This USDA CSREES funded research, education and public outreach project began in Fall of 2003. The project involved 4 UAF faculty and 3 graduate students who partnered with the Eek Traditional Council, Eek City Council and residents. The study worked around two central themes: water source assessment & protection and water management practices in the home. It was essential that the project include broad village sanitation
issues and identify complex interrelationships between environmental water quality, pathogen survival and transfer, and in-home sanitation. Project research identified areas and water sources in and around the community where fecal contamination was frequently well above natural background levels. Potential contamination pathways were identified, including vehicles and foot traffic. Land elevation surveys and follow-up testing at spring breakup provided a growing picture of pathogen transfer. One research component targeted pathogen survival in harsh Alaskan climates. Indicator bacteria proved to be champion survivors. Anecdotes told of increased sickness at breakup, raising the possibility that pathogens survive the winter to be flushed through community drainage systems as snow melts. Communities have long suspected that dogs play a role in contaminating areas near homes. This appears particularly true at breakup. Working with local Yupik-speaking student interns, the
project surveyed a number of families to gain a better idea of how they gather, store and use untreated traditional water sources. We needed to understand current practices, develop trust and engage families in home studies. Research questions focused on surface contamination, hand washing practices (repeated use of small amounts of water in a tipped bowl), and eventually point-of-use treatment and chlorination models for untreated water sources and storage containers. Eek School students were drawn into the project, both as paid interns and as fellow scientists. Non-stop Science experiments illustrated how flies carry contamination, how dog feces can potentially load spring runoff with E. coli and how repeated use of washing water increases contamination risk. In 2006, students participated in a taste test to determine what *point-of-use* chlorine concentrations were detectable and acceptable for use. They tested emergency and camping water treatment methods, particularly
relevant for families who spend time at fish camps during spring and summer salmon runs.
PARTICIPANTS: This project is indebted to Eek Traditional Council, Eek City Council and the community of Eek for their support and commitment to this project, as well as to our statewide steering committee, made up of Eek community leaders and members of Alaska Native organizations and representatives. School Administrator Dan Walker made it possible to set up a field lab at Eek High School (EHS). EHS teachers Mike Smith, Heather Fager, and Erin Henderson were central to the success of our non-Stop Science program. EHS student interns Richard Beebe and Michael White helped collect data in June 2004. They also enabled us to reach out to households where having local faces and a Yup'ik speaker meant that elders could contribute to the community-wide drinking water survey. This project contributed to the education of three graduate students, Hrishikesh Adhikari, Molly Chambers, and Shawna Laderach, who conducted research and made this project the focus of their Masters
Theses. The project and the students of Eek benefited from their work. Malcolm Ford, senior personnel for Project Outreach, coordinated all field activities and produced many of this project's publications and outreach materials.
Impacts
The emerging picture is that of communities where lack of piped water facilities and current sanitation practices raise the risk of human disease transfer through oral-fecal routes. Primary issues: lack of running water (quantity is an important factor), pathogen survival and transfer within the community, and pathogen transport between the honeybucket dump and other possible sources, the village, and homes. Practical point-of-use water treatment strategies were developed. If applied, they will protect drinking water in the home, but will not address larger health and sanitation issues facing families. Improved knowledge has provided the community with the impetus to better manage garbage and human waste, while research papers and outreach products resulted in an improved understanding of sanitation issues for state and federal agencies as well as regional communities.
Publications
- Adhikari, H. 2005. Survivability of Total Coliforms in Freezing and Frozen Soils. M. S. Thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
- Chambers, M. K. 2005. Transport of Fecal Bacteria in a Rural Alaskan Community. M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
- Laderach, S. R. 2006. Improved Water Management in Homes without Running Water. M.S. Thesis, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
- Three more papers are in press at professional journals (2007).
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Progress 10/01/05 to 09/30/06
Outputs
Note: The original termination date was 09/30/06. A no cost extension was requested and granted to extend the project to 09/14/07. CRIS AD-421 Research Report Submitted for 2003-51130-02073. Project Number: ALKR-04-01. CRIS Number: 0197775. Title: Communities at Risk: Protecting Family Drinking Water in Rural Alaska. Lead Investigator: White, D. M. Reporting period: 10/01/2005 to 09/30/2006. Progress: Graduate student Shawna Laderach completed a series of laboratory and field studies during the October 2005 - September 2006 period on in-home chlorination practice. Graduate students Molly Chambers, Shawna Laderach, and Hrishikesh Adhikari defended theses, provided presentations and submitted journal articles. In April 2006, the project team conducted a non-stop science program in Eek for middle and high school students. The students were fully involved in drinking water taste test trials and testing the efficacy of commercially available emergency/camping water
treatment methods during planned science activities. The annual community event was attended by State Representative Mary Kapsner, who has closely followed the project for the past three years. Eek City and Tribal Council leaders and parents were present to listen to Lead Investigator, Daniel White, who provided a summary of project findings, made recommendations and took questions. The community of Eek nominated the project for an Alaska Environmental Leadership Award, which was presented to project representatives during the Alaska Native Tribal Environmental Management Conference in October 2006. Shawna Laderach developed a point-of-use drinking water treatment model using sodium hypochlorite or common bleach (NaClO). An alternative treatment form, a pellet of Calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl2) was tested, but proved less effective and soluble. Chlorination regimes were developed to deliver chlorine to in-home chlorination vessels within a range recommended by the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation (i.e. 0.2-4.0 mg/L). Initial chlorine concentration and total organic content (TOC) of typical untreated ice melt (winter) and rain catchment (summer) sources strongly correlated with chlorine decay. Increased temperature negatively affected safe residual levels over typical storage times of several days. A community taste test undertaken in April 2006 showed that people could not distinguish the taste of chlorine in drinking water with residuals of 1.0 mg/L or less. This provided Shawna a window with which to work with families. Volunteers later treated water containers according to recommended treatment regimes and in-home residual conditions and times were determined. A hand washing experiment was also conducted to determine best practices for the standard practice of wash basin use in homes. Families generally conserve water by reusing hand basin water. Factors tested included water temperature, water type (chlorinated or not), water reuse and soaps.
Best results were obtained when hands were washed using soap with water running over the hands rather than dipping hands in a basin. Reusing water up to five times did not result in a rapid increase in coliform levels.
Impacts
Impact: This study provided valuable information to the community of Eek and similar under-served Alaskan rural communities. It established demonstrated action items with which families can improve in-home sanitation and better protect drinking water during storage and use. Direct parent and student involvement created shared learning experiences and practical solutions. Colorful informational flyers and reports were popular and community leaders and parents commented that they appreciated being active participants and enjoyed seeing their children actively engaged in science. The following recommendations were made: (1) Water treatment for typical 33 gallon containers. *Water derived from river ice: -Always thaw completely before chlorination -Initial chlorination 2 mg/L -Wait overnight or a minimum of one hour (16 for better flavor) before use -Use up to 5 days before rechlorination *Rain water: -Initial chlorination 2 mg/L -Wait at least one hour before use -Use up
to 2 days before rechlorination *River water or colored water: -Initial chlorination 4 mg/L -Wait overnight or a minimum of one hour before use -Use up to 4 days before rechlorination. (2) Storage: Although closed containers did not significantly increase chlorine residual times they have been found to reduce contamination. It was recommended that families use FDA approved storage containers with a spigot for drinking water. (3) Hand washing: The study recommends installation of a hand washing station or a container with a spigot for running water. Soap and use of chlorinated water provide additional benefit.
Publications
- Publications: Chambers, M., 2005. Transport of fecal bacteria in a rural Alaskan community, MS Thesis. University of Alaska Fairbanks. 83 pp.
- Adhikari, H, 2005. Survivability of total coliforms in freezing and frozen soils, MS Thesis. University of Alaska Fairbanks. 73 pp.
- Laderach, S.R. 2006. Improved water management in homes without running water. MS Thesis. University of Alaska Fairbanks. 84 pp.
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Progress 10/01/04 to 09/30/05
Outputs
Between October 2004 and September 2005 three University of Alaska Fairbanks graduate students completed significant work on this project and a trip to the community in April of 2005 combined research and school involvement in project-related science activities. Hrishikesh Adhikari completed his portion of the project concerning the survival of indicator bacteria in soil at low temperatures. Using total coliform from dog feces, Adhikari observed the decline of bacteria at soil moisture contents between 29 and 49 percent and temperatures from room temperature to -28 degrees C. Greatest survival was seen in the lowest moisture at or below -15 degrees C where the half time for coliform die-off was 301 days. At ambient Fairbanks field temperatures half times ranged from 15 to 33 days. Over the course of the outdoor experiment (190 days) total coliform decreased from 95,000,000 bacteria/gram of soil and feces mixture to 1500 coliform/gram. Most of the decrease was seen
in the fall and spring when temperatures were above freezing. The significance of these findings is that large numbers of bacteria remain viable through the cold winter temperatures and can remain a risk during the spring thawing event. Molly Chambers also completed the fieldwork for her portion of this project during the reporting period. The April community visit at spring thaw provided her an opportunity to observe flow patterns and sample surface water within the community for E. coli at this critical time of year. Indoor surfaces at the school and in several homes were also tested for Enterococcus, a genus of fecal indicator bacteria less susceptible to desiccation than E. coli. Other sampling included source tracking, pathogen testing, and sampling of washbasins and water barrels. Major findings from the April trip included the following: high levels of fecal bacteria were present in ponds, puddles, and ephemeral streams within the community during breakup; molecular evidence
suggested a human contribution to the fecal load within the community; water was not flowing from the dump ponds where honeybucket bags are discarded; gray water from washbasins frequently contained viable fecal bacteria; and though not frequent, fecal bacteria were detected on water dippers and kitchen counters and floors in some homes, and on bathroom surfaces and a basketball in the school. Shawna Laderach recently joined the project and has begun her studies of water treatment and hand cleansing options. She has visited the community once to build relationships, carry out a survey, and collect water for characterization. Back in the lab she characterized water from the community and conducted chlorination experiments with the aim of recommending a chlorination regime appropriate for the type of water being used (ice, rain, lake, or river) such that taste is acceptable and residual chlorine levels fall within the ADEC limits. The school science activity portion of the April
trip orchestrated by Malcolm Ford involved students and teachers, building on our relationship with the community and yielding opportunities to encourage scientific interest among young community members.
Impacts
This project is expected to impact the study community by providing the information community members need to take action for the protection of their health. Major findings were translated into recommendations for the study community and people in similar situations. Results from each trip which were provided to the community in the form of flyers (April trip), printed reports (previous trips), a poster (spring 2005), and presentations within the community during visits. Conversations with individuals during visits were likely as effective in sharing project results as this afforded individuals the opportunity to ask the questions that matter most to them. The following recommendations were included in the April trip flyer. (1) Since washbasins were found to have fecal contamination and human fecal contamination was found in the mid-town drainage, gray water may be the source of this contamination. Consider where wastewater flows before dumping and avoid dumping
where contact is likely. (2) Transport honeybuckets with care. Make sure they are deposited in a location where they will not be driven through and avoid spills along the way. (3) If children are going to play in the stream flowing through town at breakup, consider picking up dog waste in this area and have kids wash their hands when they come in. While the study community benefits most from specific results and involvement in project activities, the general conclusions from the study can benefit residents of other similar communities.
Publications
- Theses 2005
- Adhikari, H. 2005. Survivability of total coliforms in freezing and frozen soils. MS Thesis. University of Alaska Fairbanks. 83 pp.
- Chambers, M.K., Ford, M.R., White, D.M., Schiewer, S., and Barnes, D.L. 2005. Distribution and transport of fecal bacteria in a rural Alaskan community. World Water and Environmental Resources Congress, Anchorage, May 15-19.
- Other Conference Presentations 2004-2005
- Chambers, M.K. and Alexie, W. 2005. Transport of fecal bacteria in a rural Alaskan community. Alaska Tribal Conference on Environmental Management, Anchorage, October 3-5.
- Chambers, M.K., Ford, M.R., White, D.M., and Ritter, T. 2004. Sickness causing bugs in rural AK: a watery trail. Alaska Tribal Conference on Environmental Management, Anchorage, October 18-20.
- White, D.M., Ford, M.R., Schiewer, S., Barnes, D.L., Chambers, M.K., and Adhikari, H. 2005. Protecting family drinking water in rural Alaska. USDA-CSREES National Water Quality Conference. San Diego, Feb 8.
- Chambers, M. K. 2005. Transport of fecal bacteria in a rural Alaskan community. MS Thesis. University of Alaska Fairbanks. 92 pp. available at www.uaf.edu/water/publications/thesis.html
- Conference Proceedings 2005
- Adhikari, H., Barnes, D.L., Schiewer, S., White, D.M., and Ford, M.R. 2005. Survivability of coliform in extreme environmental conditions. World Water and Environmental Resources Congress, Anchorage, May 15-19.
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Progress 10/01/03 to 09/30/04
Outputs
As "Communities at Risk: Protecting Family Drinking Water in Rural Alaska" enters its second year, it continues to provide new insight into pathogen viability and transfer in underserved rural communities (those communities without piped water and sewer) to Alaska tribal communities and organizations, state and federal agencies. The project has been well-received in the community of Eek, where both Traditional and City Councils have reviewed and supported planning, research and outreach activities. Eek high school students Richard Beebe and Michael White worked as paid summer interns on the project. Activities to date: (i) A strong and active Steering Committee was formed. (ii) An outreach site visit in March 2004 was followed by June and August research visits, addressing village environmental health/pathogen transport in the community of Eek. Broad sweep sampling, followed by more focused testing, identified significantly higher incidence and most
probable number of E.coli at locations within the community and on route to the nearby open honeybucket lagoon and solid waste site. August sampling confirmed that four-wheeler tires and boots transport E.coli (indicator species for other human pathogens) into the community and into buildings, including the school. (iii) Fecal source samples were forwarded to an outside laboratory to determine the source of ten most contaminated sample locations. Available human Polymerase (PCR) markers proved ineffective for people of this northern community while dog markers amplified for 7 of 9 samples. Those same markers were not found to be present at sample locations, indicating that dogs were a very unlikely source. The research team is currently investigating options for developing additional human PCR markers while reviewing alternative source discrimination methods. This will allow researchers to make well-supported recommendations regarding fecal contamination sources and their
potential risk to families. (iv) Additional laboratory and field research is targeting pathogen viability under extreme temperature and moisture regimes. Current findings suggest negligible die-off at temperatures as low as -20F over a three month period. (v) Educational outreach materials including the development of community outreach products, culturally appropriate research reports, and drinking water posters have been distributed statewide through the project website, public agencies, and tribal organizations. (vi) The project helped to coordinate the sanitation/watershed track for the 2004 Alaska Native Health Board, Alaska Tribal Conference on Environmental Management. This provided an opportunity to share information with a large number of Alaska Native leaders and environmental practitioners. Presentations will also be made at the Alaska Forum on the Environment, the CSREES 2005 Water Quality Conference, and the World Water and Environmental Resources Congress
2005. (vii) A planning committee was formed to develop a "Non-stop Science" Fair scheduled to take place in Eek during the spring of 2005.
Impacts
Current research results: Community health practitioners and families continue to express concern about health risks associated with poor sanitation in small, isolated Alaska rural communities, lacking water and sewer. In mapping sites of fecal contamination and detailing how E.coli (indicator for sickness-causing organisms) survives and is transported within Eek, the UAF WERC team expects to determine general patterns of pathogen contamination and transfer relevant in other Alaskan communities. This information has the potential to influence community management practices, especially in villages that use central watering points, carry drinking water in open buckets, and dispose of waste in honeybuckets. Current study results highlight how pathogens hitch a ride with vehicle tires and boots back to people's homes. The question arises whether those pathogens contaminate food or water containers in significant numbers, establishing viable fecal-oral routes for
sickness-causing organisms. The pathogen viability (laboratory) component dispels a widely held myth that winter sewage spills and leaks present minimal health threats. Communities can no longer assume that microorganisms are rapidly killed in Alaska winter conditions. Experience suggests that it is not enough to present information to agencies. The project outreach component offers an opportunity to share educational messages inside communities, village clinics, and rural homes where local leaders and educators may better project the importance of changed lifestyle choices and behaviors.
Publications
- Chambers, M., Barnes, D., Ford, M., Schiewer, S., and White, D. 2004. "Eek Alaska: Preliminary Survey and Research Findings, Summer 2004. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Water and Environmental Research Center, pp. 1-39.
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