Source: AUBURN UNIVERSITY submitted to
REIMAGINING CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT AGRICULTURE IN A LOW CARBON WORLD
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
ACTIVE
Funding Source
AFRI COMPETITIVE GRANT
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
1029701
Grant No.
2023-68012-38994
Cumulative Award Amt.
$9,950,000.00
Proposal No.
2022-07526
Multistate No.
(N/A)
Project Start Date
Apr 1, 2023
Project End Date
Mar 31, 2027
Grant Year
2023
Program Code
[A9201]- Sustainable Agricultural Systems
Project Director
Higgins, B.
Recipient Organization
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
108 M. WHITE SMITH HALL
AUBURN,AL 36849
Performing Department
(N/A)
Non Technical Summary
Controlled environment agriculture (CEA), or the production of food crops in greenhouses and indoor spaces, is expected to increase 5-fold in market size over the next ten years. CEA increases food security and reduces the number of miles that food needs to travel before it reaches consumers' plates. It also helps produce more fresh fruits and vegetables on a year-round basis, thus helping reduce nutritional insecurity. Despite these benefits, CEA infrastructure is a massive energy consumer and, in its current form, is fundamentally incompatible with a low carbon economy. Much of this energy is used for climate control, artificial lighting, and chemical fertilizer. Our team's long-term goal is to transform CEA strategically, managerially, technologically, and socially to reposition it as a viable food production system capable of producing sufficient and nutritious foods within the low-carbon economy. This project is supported by the CEA industry: a comprehensive survey of 35 horticulture producers reveals strong interest in sustainable practices, water quality and quantity, and labor shortages. This project is informed by an advisory board composed of stakeholders representing both production agriculture and CEA equipment vendors.Our long-term objectives are to 1) Reduce the demand for heating and cooling in CEA food production environments, 2) Improve the overall efficiency of CEA climate-controlled environments, 3) Lower the carbon intensity of resource inputs, and 4) Shift consumer and producer behavior surrounding CEA products and practices. To this end, we are engaging in research, education, and outreach activities in a wide range of fields including plant biology, horticulture, biosystems engineering, computer science, and economics. The outcome of this multi-discipline approach will be to create new breeds of plants that are more tolerant to extreme temperatures and cropping strategies that lower energy demand. Additional benefits include the demonstrated use of bioenergy and wastewater for plant production, optimal greenhouse control strategies, education of current and future producers, and insights into how consumers view "green" CEA produce. These outcomes directly benefit the US CEA industry which is over $74 billion in size with an expected 10% annual growth rate. To ensure the long-term sustainability of the industry, such massive growth must be accompanied by appropriate reductions in energy use, improvements in energy efficiency, and a switch to clean energy sources - all of which are outcomes of this project. Our efforts to reduce carbon emissions from CEA will have the secondary benefit of lowering energy consumption and costs for producers as much as 25%. With energy bills making up a large component of production costs, this would be a huge win for farmers, consumers, and the environment.
Animal Health Component
40%
Research Effort Categories
Basic
60%
Applied
40%
Developmental
0%
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
4035370202010%
2011460104010%
2011430104010%
2041460106010%
2041430106010%
4025399202015%
4032410202010%
6012410301015%
8066110302010%
Knowledge Area
601 - Economics of Agricultural Production and Farm Management; 403 - Waste Disposal, Recycling, and Reuse; 204 - Plant Product Quality and Utility (Preharvest); 806 - Youth Development; 201 - Plant Genome, Genetics, and Genetic Mechanisms; 402 - Engineering Systems and Equipment;

Subject Of Investigation
6110 - Economy of the United States and sectors thereof; 1460 - Tomato; 1430 - Greens and leafy vegetables; 5399 - Structures, facilities, and equipment, general/other; 5370 - Sewage and waste disposal facilities and systems; 2410 - Cross-commodity research--multiple crops;

Field Of Science
2020 - Engineering; 1040 - Molecular biology; 1060 - Biology (whole systems); 3020 - Education; 3010 - Economics;
Goals / Objectives
Our team's long-term goal is to transform CEA strategically, managerially, technologically, and socially to position it as a viable food production system capable of producing sufficient and nutritious foods within the low-carbon economy.Our long term objectives are to:1) Reduce demand for heating and cooling in CEA, 2) Improve efficiency of CEA climate control, 3) Lower the carbon intensity of resource inputs, and 4) Shift consumer and producer behavior surrounding CEA products and practices.To accomplish this broad set of objectives, our team of plant biologists, biosystems engineers, agricultural economists, computer scientists, and horticulturists will engage in research, extension, and educational activities targeting a range of short- (S) and medium- (M) term objectives. These include:1. Improve plant temperature resilience through genetic and microbial approaches (M)2. Quantify impacts of novel cropping strategies (S)3. Utilize waste CO2 for plant production (M)4. Develop thermochemical methods that use agricultural residues for greenhouse heating and cooling (M)5. Utilize wastewater safely for irrigation (M)6. Improve greenhouse efficiency through design, modeling, and control (S, M)7. Map consumer willingness to pay across diverse populations and quantify production costs (S, M)8. Train future and existing producers through workshops and publications (S, M)9. Train future producers through gamified learning modules (M).
Project Methods
The project is too vast in scope to provide methodological detail. Below is a summary of the overall approach and a list of the tasks to be completed.This project focuses on plant production in greenhouses. We choose greenhouses over indoor agriculture because of their built-in capacity to utilize solar energy to drive photosynthesis with lower GHG emissions. It is also much more common than indoor agriculture and therefore interventions will have a broader immediate impact. We will focus our cross-institutional efforts on tomatoes and lettuce because they are the most-produced greenhouse plants and represent both a fruiting (warm season) and leafy (cool season) vegetable. This is an integrated research, extension, and education project. As such, there are interactions between each of these areas as shown in Fig. 1. For clarity, however, the tasks are broken down within the areas of research, extension, and education as follows:Research activities:Task 1. Identify loci governing chilling resilience of tomato by association mappingTask 2: Reduce cooling costs and extend the growing season of lettuce crops by breeding heat-tolerant varietiesTask 3: Harness microbial consortia for imparting stress resilience in tomato and lettuceTask 4: Determine the effects of seasonal cropping systems and polyculture on yield and energy consumptionTask 5: Test the effects of point-of-use climate control on cropsTask 6: Test light management strategies for enhanced yield and its impact on energy demandTask 7: Test experimental systems from other project teamsTask 8: Develop thermochemical methods that use agricultural residues for greenhouse heating and coolingTask 9: Develop a wastewater treatment train that allows for efficient nutrient transformation and pathogen control for CEA irrigationTask 10: Develop periphyton systems for nutrient recovery from post-plant effluentTask 11: Evaluate the optimal greenhouse designs and natural ventilation methods for greenhouses in the southern US with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and energy modelingTask 12: Develop dynamic hydroponic lettuce and tomato crop models to identify optimal growth conditions at different growth stages and predict yields to support decision-makingTask 13: Develop a decision support tool by integrating crop models and energy simulation to support smart climate control to improve energy use efficiency and crop productivityTask 14: Conduct a comparative life cycle assessment on multiple CEA production scenariosTask 15: Evaluate consumers' perceptions and their willingness to pay (WTP) for proposed low-carbon CEA commodities across different demographic populationsTask 16: Develop enterprise budgets for CEA under different technological and managerial practiceExtension activities:Task 17. Enhance CEA programming at the University of Florida, Small Farms AcademyTask 18: Training of extension agents on CEA best practices and low-carbon strategiesTask 19: Develop extension outreach documents that communicate CEA best practices and low-carbon strategiesEducation activities:Task 20: Develop learning modules using AR/VR to educate secondary school students on CEATask 21: Engage regional high schools in CEA education

Progress 04/01/23 to 03/31/24

Outputs
Target Audience: Academic community of Biosystems Engineers Academic community of Horticulturists Academic community of Agricultural Economists Academic community of Engineering Education (with focus on computer science) Academic community of Agricultural Education Academic community of Plant Biologists and Breeders Greenhouse horticulture producers Greenhouse design and construction firms Greenhouse control and automation firms Greenhouse peripherals manufacturers e.g. lighting, film materials, etc. Regional, State, and National policymakers including environmental regulators (EPA, ADEM), food safety regulators (USDA) Utilities (source of heat, power). Wastewater generators in the agricultural sector (aquaculture, livestock) Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project has provided training for 15 PhD students, 1 MS students, 5 postdocs, and at least 2 undergraduate researchers. All of these students worked under the direct guidance of an investigator on this project and received funding from this project. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Quarterly meetings with the full investigative team and advisory board (encompassing growers, greenhouse controls manufacturer, and AL farmers' federation) The first annual GRACE symposium (2-day event) held in March of 2024 encompassing full investigative team and advisory board Conferences and workshops. Highlights: Higgins participated in ASABE's circular CEA workshop as an expert panelist. Maryam Bigonah attended the NSF Workshop on Sustainable Computing for Sustainability in Alexandria, VA. Ying Zhang presented at the NCERA-101 Annual Meeting (Committee on Controlled Environment Technology and Use) in Davis, CA, and the UF Station Report in Apopka, FL. Ying Zhang also presented at the UF/IFAS CEA Forum in Apopka, FL, on CEA Engineering for Sustainable Plant Production. Xi Zhang showcased research at the UF ABE Poster Symposium in Gainesville, FL, focusing on a CFD study for efficient greenhouse ventilation and shading control in the southern US. Kaiwen Xiao presented at the UF ABE Poster Symposium in Gainesville, FL, on intelligent greenhouse climate control for sustainable plant production. Henry Zhu participated in the UF ABE Poster Symposium in Gainesville, FL, presenting a dynamic growth model for greenhouse hydroponic lettuce and tomato integrated with machine learning. Daniela Marghitu presented at the ASEE conference in Portland, OR, on the GRACE Platform: Enhancing Pedagogy with Gamified AR and VR in Agricultural Education. Kevan Lamm presented at the AIAEE conference in Orlando, FL, discussing critical issues facing controlled environment agriculture in the horticulture industry and their implications for global audiences. Sushil Adhikari presented at the GRACE symposium in Auburn, AL, on low-temperature heat utilization for greenhouse cooling using the Organic Rankine cycle (ORC): A review. Sushil Adhikari also presented at the Auburn Research Symposium in Auburn, AL, on modeling of energy needs for cooling and heating in controlled environment agriculture based on meteorological data of Auburn, Alabama. Hossein Jahromi presented at the GRACE symposium in Auburn, AL, on the Green Reimagining of Agriculture in Controlled Environment Symposium. Hossein Jahromi also presented at the Auburn Research Symposium in Auburn, AL, on the valorization of tomato plant residue through hydrothermal liquefaction to produce high-value chemicals and bio-oils. Extension subteam hosted multiple training workshops on CEA vegetable production: Examples Pickens and Hochmuth at Auburn University and the University of Florida conducted 3 workshops in 2024. Introduction to Hydroponics and Protected Agriculture Workshop at the Alabama Fruit and Vegetable Growers Conference in Gulf Shores, AL. A two-day workshop on how to develop a successful hydroponics business was conducted at the North Florida Research and Extension Center in Live Oak, FL on two separate occasions. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Goal 1: Continue study of the IL tomato lines with a focus on genetic variation that gives rise to phenotypic differences in response to low temperature. Continue screening of microbial isolates on tomato plants. Continue screening lettuce varietals for high-temperature tolerance in greenhouse systems Goal 2: Complete inaugural tomato trial and begin the next trial taking into consideration data from the previous. Complete inaugural lettuce trials Goal 3: Continue characterization of gases obtained from thermochemical and combustion processes using greenhouse biomass. Goal 4: Continue thermochemical treatments on greenhouse waste biomass to assess yield of energy carrier products. Goal 5: Higgins's group will complete the construction of the pilot-scale treatment train Collect volume and water quality data from post-irrigation sumps next to the greenhouse. This supports LCA and experimental water treatment testing. Goal 6: A working LCA model of Young's Plant Farm will be generated in OpenLCA. A built DSSAT CSM CROGRO-tomato model and SIMPLE model to explore their suitability as a prototype for the hydroponic tomato model or comparison with other models. A completed CFD model will be used to evaluate different design and control scenarios. Goal 7: Obtain IRB approval and launch customer "willingness to pay" survey and analyze results Initiate an in-person experiment where participants are tasked with physically purchasing the product using cash, diverging from the conventional online survey method. Goal 8: Continue to develop workshops and training webinars for future and existing producers Goal 9: Continue developing learning modules on different topics with the aim of completing a pilot module on water quality for hydroponics Begin development of AI learning modules

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Goal 1: Co-PI Potnis' group has begun screening tomato microbial collection for temperature resilience in tomato. She has completed the first batch of screening and has identified some isolates for further experiments to be performed in combination. Potnis' group is optimizing the protocol for microbial DNA extraction from tomato seeds. This will be useful for further work on transgenerational selection of microbiome under stress. Co-PI Kim's group has studied the impact of low nighttime temperatures (~15°C) that impede the overall growth and fruit yield of tomato plants compared to those in moderate nighttime temperatures (>18°C). Through height and yield measurement, candidate introgressed lines (IL) of Solanum lycopersicum cv. M82 x S. pennellii are being identified for further study. Kim's team is analyzing photosynthetic activity on both parental lines, S. lycopersicum cv. M82 and S. pennellii and shown that they maintain similar photosynthesis efficiency under moderate or low nighttime temperatures but that low nighttime temperatures reduce the overall photosynthesis efficiency during the daytime. Co-PI Sandoya has conducted two experiments to screen germplasm for heat tolerance in a hydroponic system (nutrient film technique) in the greenhouse. The experiment was conducted using 104 lettuce accessions that include commercial cultivars, advanced breeding lines from the University of Florida Breeding Program, Plant Introductions from the USDA-Germplasm R I N system, and other legacy cultivars. These lettuce accessions comprised multiple morphological types including, romaine, butterhead, Latin, and leaf lettuce. Goal 2: Co-PI Wells's team installed a dividing wall in a double bay greenhouse to created two independent spaces for whole-greenhouse experimentation. The inaugural crop switching trial began in January of 2024 with tomato grown nearly year round in one bay and a crop switching regime with lettuce and tomato in the other bay. Different temperature set points are being used depending on crop. Sensors and an extensive data collection form were implemented in collaboration with Shelia and Zhang. Efficient management of both data and labor resources have been established. Goal 3 Co-PIs Adhikari's team obtained six samples of greenhouse-grown plant residues for thermochemical processing. This included four samples of tomato residue- Cherry Tomato (Desha), Beef Steak Tomato, cherry tomato (Washington and Favorita), Catalina cucumber vines, and Lettuce obtained from local greenhouses. Materials were dried and ground for analysis. The proximate analysis (ash content, volatile content, and fixed carbon) of those dried and ground biomasses was carried out as per ASTM standards. The C, H, N, and S content of the dry biomass was determined by an elemental analyzer The heating value of the greenhouse residue was determined using a unified correlation equation on elemental analysis. Goal 4: Co-PIs Jahromi's team conducted a hydrothermal liquefaction experiment on greenhouse biomass at varying temperatures (260,290 and 320º and reaction medium (water, ethanol, and methanol), with the use of catalysts like MgO and ZSM-5 which was carried out to understand energy recovery at different operating conditions. Jahromi mentored PhD student, Bibasyana Ghungana, to conduct the mass balance of different hydrothermal liquefaction trials and bio-oil characterization (elemental analysis, and identification of functional groups of bio-oil using GCMS, FTIR). Co-PI Jahromi created mathematical models to forecast greenhouse heating and cooling requirements, while also conducting literature reviews and developing predictive models for Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) performance, exploring different heat sources and working fluids. Goal 5: PI Higgins's group designed and started construction on a pilot-scale wastewater treatment system for aquaculture sludge and food waste. This system uses anaerobic digestion, and aerobic bacterial and algal processes to generate new fish feed and provide nutrient-rich water for recirculation back into hydroponic plant systems. We have designed and begun construction on a sump system to collect greenhouse irrigation effluent for water quality and quantity monitoring. This water will also be used by co-PI Blersch in the study of treatment systems. Goal 6: PI Higgins hired a PhD student and this student has begun developing the framework of a greenhouse life cycle assessment (LCA) model in OpenLCA software. We have also developed a partnership with Young's Plant Farm as a testbed for this model. Co-PI Shelia's PhD student, Henry Zhu, is assembling the open-source TOMGRO tomato model into a functional Visual Studio and Fortran programming project for comparative purposes. Shelia developed the source codes of the DSSAT CSM CROGRO-tomato model and SIMPLE model to explore their suitability as a prototype for the hydroponic tomato model or comparison with other models. Co-PI Zhangmentored PhD student XiZhangin a literature review regarding greenhouse design, ventilation, and cooling to improve greenhouse cooling with computational fluid dynamics (CFD). In addition, a CFD model is under development that will be used to evaluate different design and control scenarios. Co-PI Zhangmentored PhD student Kaiwen Xiao in a literature review regarding AI algorithms in CEA applications. Precision agriculture technologies were screened and selected to predict biomass and gas exchanges of crops to achieve plant feedback-based greenhouse climate control. Goal 7: Co-PI Chen guided master's student Hali Braynon in developing a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis, which outlined various greenhouse types and their operational requirements. Co-PI Chen mentored postdoctoral researcher Alan Xu in crafting a consumer survey aimed at gauging public purchasing preferences pertaining to lettuce and tomatoes grown with a lower carbon footprint. The survey is currently pending IRB approval before its launch. Goal 8: Three workshops were conducted by the University of Florida and Auburn University. These workshops provided training to over 38 individuals. A 4-hour workshop was conducted at the Alabama Fruit and Vegetable Growers Association (AFVGA) meeting in Orange Beach, Alabama hydroponics and protected agriculture. A two-day workshop on how to develop a successful hydroponics business was conducted at the North Florida Research and Extension Center in Live Oak, FL on two separate occasions. Ten agents were provided the funding necessary to attend a CEA workshop at the UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center in Live Oak, FL where they learned best practices associated with CEA production and low-carbon strategies related to energy savings. Co-PI Cline conducted the 2023 Aquaponics 101 Workshop including 19 Educators from 4 states (AL, TN, FL, C T) and 7 graduate students from Auburn University Biosystems Engineering and Food Safety. Cline hosted the Urban Aquaponics and Community Food Industry Development webinar with 343 registrants from 53 countries and 32 US States Goal 9: Co-PI Marghitu's group has developed the GRACE education website interface and data based in collaboration with Higgins to begin the development of learning modules that can be utilized by future producers. Marghitu has instructed PhD student, Maryham Bigonah, in the deployment of the Virtual Private Server (VPS) to host the GRACE educational learning module website.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Kalvakaalva, R., M. Smith, S.A. Prior, G.B. Runion, E. Ayipio, C. Blanchard, D. Wells, D. Blersch, S. Adhikari, R. Prasad, T. Hanson, N. Wall, B.T. Higgins. 2023. Mass-Balance Process Model of a Decoupled Aquaponic System. Journal of the ASABE. 66(4): 955-967.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Kalvakaalva, R., M. Smith, S.A. Prior, G.B. Runion, E. Ayipio, C. Blanchard, D. Wells, D. Blersch, S. Adhikari, R. Prasad, T. Hanson, N. Wall, B.T. Higgins. 2023. Life cycle assessment of a decoupled biofloc aquaponics facility across seasons. Journal of Cleaner Production. 429. 139356.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Wang, Q., A. Fallahi, A.E. Wilson, B.T. Higgins. 2024. Engineered algal systems for the treatment of anaerobic digestate: a meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Management. In press.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Rui Chen, Derick T. Adu, Wenying Li, Norbert L.W. Wilson. 2024. "Virtual Water Trade: Does Bilateral Tariff Matter?" Ecological Economics. In press.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Higgins, B., S. Adhikari, D. Blersch, D. Cline, H. Jahromi, N. Potnis, D. Wells, Y. Zhang, B. Hochmuth, G. Sandoya, V. Shelia, R. Chen, Y. Diabate, G. Hunter, D. Mortley, Y. Kim, K. Lamm. 2023. Reimagining controlled environment agriculture in a low carbon world. OH CEAC. Invited Talk. July 19.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Higgins, B.T. 2023. Reimagining controlled environment agriculture in a low-carbon world. OHCEAC conference. Columbus, OH. July 19th.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Bigonah, M., B.T. Higgins, D. Marghitu. 2024. Sustainable Agricultural Education with Gamified Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR) Technologies and Artificial Intelligence (AI). NSF Workshop on Sustainable Computing for Sustainability. Alexandria, VA. April 16-18.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Ying Zhang. 2023. UF Station Report. NCERA-101 Annual Meeting (Committee on Controlled Environment Technology and Use). Davis, CA. 4/19-4/23.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Ying Zhang. 2024. CEA Engineering for Sustainable Plant Production. UF/IFAS CEA Forum. Apopka, FL. 3/21/24.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Xi Zhang. 2024. A CFD Study for efficient greenhouse ventilation and shading control in the southern US. UF ABE Poster Symposium. Gainesville, FL. 3/6/24
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Kaiwen Xiao. 2024. Intelligent greenhouse climate control for sustainable plant production. UF ABE Poster Symposium. Gainesville, FL. 3/6/24
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Henry Zhu. 2024. Dynamic growth model for greenhouse hydroponic lettuce and tomato integrated with machine learning. UF ABE Poster Symposium. Gainesville, FL. 3/6/24
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Accepted Year Published: 2024 Citation: Daniela Marghitu. 2024. GRACE Platform: Enhancing Pedagogy with Gamified AR and VR in Agricultural Education. ASEE Conference. Portland, OR. 6/24/24.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Kevan Lamm. 2024. Critical issues facing controlled environment agriculture in the horticulture industry: Implications for global audiences. AIAEE conference. Orlando, FL. 4/22/24.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Sushil Adhikari. 2024. Low temperature heat utilization for greenhouse cooling using Organic Rankine cycle (ORC): A review. GRACE symposium. Auburn, AL. 3/14/24
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Sushil Adhikari. 2024. ?Modelling of Energy Need for Cooling and Heating in Controlled Environment Agriculture based on Meteorological Data of Auburn, Alabama. Auburn Research Symposium. Auburn, AL. 3/26/24
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Hossein Jahromi. 2024. Green Reimagining of Agriculture in Controlled Environment Symposium. GRACE symposium. Auburn, AL. 3/14/24
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Hossein Jahromi. 2024. Valorization of tomato plant residue through hydrothermal liquefaction to produce high-value chemicals and bio-oils. Auburn Research Symposium. Auburn, AL. 3/26/24
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Hali Branyon. 2024. Cost-Benefit Analysis on Greenhouse Tomato Production Using Low-Carbon Technologies. Association of 1890 Research Directors (ARD) Symposium. Nashville, TN. 4/2024.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: B.T. Higgins. 2024. Auburn University Station Report. NCERA-101 Annual Meeting. Des Moines, IA. March 23-26.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Wang, Q., B.T. Higgins. 2024. Circular economy utilization of solid waste from CEA for feed/fertilizer production. GRACE Annual Symposium. Auburn, AL. March 14-15.