Progress 05/01/23 to 04/30/24
Outputs
Target Audience:During the second year, our project primarily targeted two main audiences: academic researchers in materials science and agriculture and underrepresented college students: Academic Researchers in Materials Science and Agriculture: Our research is designed to contribute significantly to the fields of sustainable agriculture, nanotechnology, and environmental science. We aim to advance the understanding and application of carbon nanotube (CNT)-embedded hydrogels as sustainable soil conditioners that improve water retention and fertilizer efficiency. This audience was engaged through conference presentations and research publications. By sharing our findings, including the novel CNT/hydrogel self-assembly process and enhanced water retention properties, we reached researchers interested in innovative materials for agricultural applications. The scientific insights generated in this project also fostered discussions at national and international conferences, promoting collaborative opportunities and advancing knowledge in the field. Underrepresented College Students in Agriculture and STEM Fields: Engaging underrepresented students has been a core focus of our project. Through presentations at Prairie View A&M University's Research Day and Texas A&M University System's Pathway Research Symposium, we aimed to inspire and inform students from minority and underrepresented backgrounds about cutting-edge research in sustainable agriculture and nanotechnology. Our goal is to encourage students to pursue careers in STEM fields, particularly in agriculture and environmental science. By exposing students to our work on CNT/hydrogel composites, we support PVAMU's mission to foster a more diverse and inclusive future workforce in agriculture. By focusing on these audiences, we ensure that our project not only advances academic knowledge but also has meaningful, long-term impacts on education, diversity in STEM, and sustainable agricultural practices in vulnerable regions. Changes/Problems:Over the past year, the project encountered several significant challenges, resulting in delays and adjustments to our initial research schedule and approach. 1. Delays in Project Initiation: The project officially began on May 1, 2022; however, administrative changes and delays in establishing internal accounts at Prairie View A&M University (PVAMU) postponed the effective start date to August 2022. This delay impacted initial research timelines and set back early stages of material synthesis and characterization. Although the project team has worked to mitigate these effects by reallocating resources and prioritizing specific tasks, the initial delay has had a cascading impact on subsequent phases, particularly field application tests. 2. Personnel Challenges: A key obstacle in Year 1 was the lack of available graduate students due to VISA delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Expected graduate student arrivals from Africa were postponed, leaving the PI without sufficient personnel to conduct laboratory work. To address this, the PI increased their own lab involvement and hired an undergraduate from the College of Engineering to assist. As of Spring 2023, one graduate student, Favour Lewechi Ezeogu, joined the lab, enabling progress in composite preparation and testing. However, Favour quited the Chemistry program and changed her major to computer science in Fall, 2023, which further interupted the plan for the project progress. Another new gruaduate student, Mohammad Tarequl Islam, joined in Spring 2024 and replaced Favour. 3. Material Sourcing and Method Adjustments: The high cost and limited availability of fluorinated carbon nanotubes (FCNTs) prompted the team to explore alternatives to maintain budget and material accessibility. Tests were conducted with pristine carbon nanotubes (PCNTs) as a cost-effective substitute. These adjustments led to promising results, particularly in microgel crosslinking with single-walled PCNTs under optimized ultrasonication conditions, though issues remain with multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) integration, which consistently failed to form the desired colloidal gels. This shift from FCNTs to PCNTs represents a significant deviation from the original plan but has improved the project's sustainability and cost-effectiveness. 4. Greenhouse and Field Application Test Delays: Challenges in personnel availability and material sourcing and methodadjustments impacted the progress of the field-scaletests. The team is actively working to accelerate these tests in the coming year, however, we might need one year extention due the the matching seasons for plant growth. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Training and Professional Development The project has provided valuable opportunities for training and professional development, particularly for graduate students. Initially, an M.S. chemistry student from Nigeria, Ms. Favour Ezeogu, was actively involved in the research. She gained hands-on experience in preparing QD-FCNT/PAAm microgelcomposites embedded and acquired proficiency in using advanced analytical equipment such as ATR-FTIRand TGA. She also learned to design and conduct experiments to study the water retention capacity of the composites at different temperatures. This involvement not only allowed her to apply her theoretical knowledge but also to develop practical skills and a deeper understanding of the subject matter, significantly contributing to her professional growth in the fields of agriculture, chemistry, and materials science. Subsequently, Ms. Ezeogu changed her major to computer science, and her position was replaced by Mr. Mohammad Tarequl Islam, a new graduate student who joined in Spring 2024. Mohammad has received training on all the equipment previously used by Favour. In addition, he was trained in Raman spectroscopic characterization, dynamic light scattering (DLS), viscometer measurements, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). He has also been trained to present at Prairie View A&M University research conferences and the 2024 American Chemical SocietySouthwest Regional Meeting. The project has offered significant training and professional development opportunities, fostering technical skills and research competency within a multidisciplinary framework. Graduate and undergraduate students involved in this research have gained hands-on experience in advanced synthesis techniques, characterization methods, and practical applications relevant to agriculture and materials science. Under Graduate Research Training on Advanced Composite Materials: Two other undergraduate students have been trained in synthesizing microgel composites crosslinked with carbon nanotubes, a central focus of the project aimed at improving water retention and fertilizer efficiency, but the undergraduate students were also trained to use the synthesized composites for water treatment. Through laboratory sessions, they learned to manipulate CNTs and hydrogels, mastering techniques such as ultrasonication for CNT dispersion, polymer crosslinking, and the preparation of hydrogel composites. This hands-on work enhances their technical understanding of composite materials and nanotechnology--skills that are highly applicable across industries. Mentorship and Collaborative Learning: Students benefited from mentorship by faculty members, receiving one-on-one guidance in research methodology and scientific writing. This mentorship prepared them for the scientific publication process and helped build confidence in their research abilities. Moreover, the interdisciplinary nature of the project facilitated collaborative learning, as students from different backgrounds in chemistry, agriculture, and environmental sciences worked together, fostering a team-oriented approach to problem-solving.? How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?In the second year of the project, our dissemination strategy targeted both college students, research communities and the broader public to maximize the impact of our findings on sustainable agriculture, environmental science, and material science. Engagement with Academic and Research Communities: Conference Presentations:The PI presented research findings at the International Soft-Matter Conference 2024 in Raleigh, North Carolina, sharing insights into the self-assembly of CNT/microgel composites and highlighting their enhanced water retention and novel structural characteristics. Graduate students Mr. Mohammad Tarequl Islam and Ms. Promise Otuokere, along with the PI, also presented project updates at the 2024 ACS Southwest Regional Meeting in Waco, Texas. These presentations generated interest from both global and regional materials science, agricultural science, and environmental science researchers, fostering discussions on cross-disciplinary approaches to sustainability challenges and potential collaborations. Future young-generation of workforce in Agriculture: We presented our research progress on the Annual PVAMU student research week. The presentation inspired and informed the underrepresented undergraduate students at PVAMU, as well as students from other TAMUS members, pursuing careers in agriculture and related fields. The PI also included the content of this research in his undergraduate courses to encourage students to explore agriculture research opportunities, internships, and mentorship programs that align with their interests and contribute to a more diverse and inclusive agricultural workforce. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? 1. Incorporate Fertilizers and Study Release Dynamics: Building on the preliminary work conducted in the previous period, we will further expand this effort into a comprehensive study of fertilizer incorporation and release dynamics. 2. Conduct Field-Scale Application Tests: After completing greenhouse-scale tests, we will extend our studies on water retention and fertilizer release to field-scale trials, assessing the practical application of the composites in larger, real-world settings. 3. Enhance Dissemination and Reporting: We plan to prepare and submit additional manuscripts to high-impact journals, focusing on the innovative CNT/microgel 3D self-assembly, its enhanced mechanical properties, and the results from soil application studies. 4. Overcome Previous Challenges: The project experienced delays due to the departure of the previous graduate student, Ms. Favour Ezeogu, in the middle of her Chemistry degree program. Now, with our newly trained graduate student, Mohammad Tarequl Islam, we are well-prepared to accelerate both fertilizer release and field-scale testing. 5. Develop New Functionalities for Water Treatment: Recognizing the potential of our crosslinked composites for water treatment applications, we intend to allocate a portion of our efforts to further exploring and developing this capability. By pursuing these actions, we expect to make substantial progress toward our project's objectives, addressing key agricultural challenges and advancing sustainable practices.
Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals?
Project Goals and Objectives: This project aims to develop advanced hydrogel composites embedded with crosslinked carbon nanotube (XCNT) networks to improve water retention and fertilizer efficiency in agriculture. By incorporating robust XCNT nano-skeletons within hydrogels, we aim to retain the hydrogel's high water absorption capacity even under soil pressure. These multifunctional composites are designed to serve as both water retainers and controlled-release fertilizer carriers, offering sustainable solutions to address water scarcity and nutrient loss in soil. The project's specific objectives are: Synthesize and characterize XCNT-hydrogel composites to enhance strength and stability. Evaluate water retention and fertilizer release properties of XCNT-hydrogel composites in greenhouse conditions to assess benefits for plant growth. Conduct field tests to evaluate the long-term efficacy of XCNT-hydrogel composites in improving soil and water quality. Accomplishments for Reporting Period: Objective 1 - Synthesis and Characterization: In this period, we successfully cross-linked fluorinated single-walled carbon nanotubes (FSWNTs). To assess the thermostability of crosslinking bonds affected by lattice curvature-induced strain, we conducted systematic characterization using Raman spectroscopy with varying power densities. Our results indicate that the defluorination-assisted cross-linking of the carbon nanotube network is metastable compared to both the original fluorinated single-walled carbon nanotubes (FSWNTs) before defluorination and pristine single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs). These findings have led to a research publication in the peer-reviewed journal Nanomaterials(Gao, Y.; Islam, M.T.; Otuokere, P.U.; Pulikkathara, M.; Liu, Y.The Stability of UV-Defluorination-Driven Crosslinked Carbon Nanotubes: A Raman Study.Nanomaterials2024,14, 1464). Due to our inability to synthesize FSWNTs in our lab, we rely on commercial products. During our investigation, we discovered that using fluorinated carbon nanotubes at current market prices is significantly more expensive (about $500/gram) because of a decreased number of manufacturers in recent years, potentially making their application less sustainable. Additionally, the quality and stability of commercially available FSWNTs from different vendors vary significantly. Consequently, we continued the research in two alternative directions. First Alternative Approach: For the low-quality fluorinated carbon nanotubes we received, we repurposed the quality-downgraded FCNTs (QD-FCNTs) as effective nano-additives in polyacrylamide (PAAm) microgel composites for water retention applications. Because QD-FCNTs are rich in surface defects, we enhanced their hydrophilicity by employing a mild surface treatment with a low dosage of the organic electron donor N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine, without additional energy input or large quantities of harmful chemicals. This treatment significantly improved the interaction between QD-FCNTs and PAAm microgels, leading to a 55% increase in water retention time compared to composites made with untreated QD-FCNTs. Our findings present a sustainable approach to extending the lifecycle of FCNTs, contributing to the circular economy and offering practical solutions for water management in agriculture and environmental technologies. This effort resulted in a recent publication in the peer-reviewed journal Sustainability(Ezeogu, F.L.; Ojha, G.P.; Otuokere, P.U.; Islam, M.T.; Grady, T.; Gao, Y. Repurposing Quality-Downgraded Fluorinated Carbon Nanotubes as Eco-Additives in Microgel Composites for Sustained Water Release. Sustainability 2024, 16, 9468. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16219468). Second Alternative Approach: We explored experimental conditions to replace fluorinated carbon nanotubes with more cost-effective pristine single-walled carbon nanotubes (PSWNTs) or even cheaper industrial-grade multi-walled carbon nanotubes (iMWNTs). We developed a highly efficient method to create CNT/PAAm-microgel self-assemblies that has not been reported before. This method involves controlled microgel formation, the percentage of carbon nanotubes in the composites, the diameter of the CNTs, and the power of ultrasonication. Despite CNTs being insoluble in water, they can be well-dispersed by 3D PAAm microgels, representing the first discovery of a 3D CNT aqueous dispersant in the field. Our experiments revealed that by controlling the ultrasonication power, only 5% of PSWNTs can efficiently cross-link microgels into microscopic colloidal gels. However, when 5% multi-walled carbon nanotubes were used--regardless of diameter--microscopic colloidal gel formation consistently failed. Under the same conditions, multi-walled carbon nanotube/microgel mixtures formed very stable conductive inks. Notably, iMWNTs can crosslink PMMA microgels when their percentage is increased to 40%. Considering the relatively low cost of iMWNTs (below $200/kg), they still hold great potential for real applications. Detailed characterization of the above pristine CNT-crosslinked microgels was conducted using various methods, including Raman spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), viscometry, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). These analyses validated the effective crosslinking of CNTs and demonstrated the improved mechanical properties of XCNT hydrogel composites over non-crosslinked counterparts. During this period, we explored both fluorinated and pristine CNTs, finding that pristine single-walled CNTs provide sufficient structural support at lower costs, making them a feasible alternative for sustainable composite production. Objective 2 - Water retention, Fertilizer-releasing and Greenhouse Testing: Water retention experiments conducted at elevated temperatures (35°C) demonstrated that microgels crosslinked via our eco-friendly treated carbon nanotubesretained water significantly longer (50% more) than non-treated controls, enhancing their potential for drought mitigation in agriculture. We also initiated the preparation of fertilizer-release tests. Since urea is featureless in UV-vis spectroscopy, we coupled it with p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde (DMAB) to produce a bright yellow solution. This allowed us to create a standard absorption versus urea concentration plot, facilitating accurate measurement of urea concentration after leaching.? Preliminary greenhouse tests with lettuce growth were conducted in co-PI's labs at Texas A&M University, College Station. Initial results showed that the PSWNT (5%)/PAAm microgel composites retain water longer than the soil control environment but were slightly less effective than commercial hydrogel products. However, our composite supported larger-sized plant development in the same duration, promoting stronger plant growth. Key Outcomes and Impact The successful development of CNT-crosslinked microgel composites provides an innovative approach to addressing water scarcity and nutrient loss in agricultural soils. The improved mechanical stability of the flocculated microgels ensures they can withstand soil pressures without collapsing or running off, allowing them to retain water more effectively. Future Work Complete Greenhouse Studies: Further evaluate water retention, fertilizer release, and crop yield improvements using optimized PSWNT/microgel and iMWNT/microgel composites. Embed Additional Nutrients: Incorporate various nutrient types into the hydrogel composites and assess their release profiles. Full-Scale Field Tests: Assess long-term soil health, water quality, and environmental impact through extensive field trials. Publications: Prepare and submit manuscripts to high-impact journals focusing on the self-assembled CNT/microgel structure control, properties, and initial agricultural testing results.
Publications
- Type:
Peer Reviewed Journal Articles
Status:
Published
Year Published:
2024
Citation:
Gao, Y.; Islam, M.T.; Otuokere, P.U.; Pulikkathara, M.; Liu, Y. The Stability of UV-Defluorination-Driven Crosslinked Carbon Nanotubes: A Raman Study. Nanomaterials 2024, 14, 1464.
- Type:
Peer Reviewed Journal Articles
Status:
Published
Year Published:
2024
Citation:
Ezeogu, F.L.; Ojha, G.P.; Otuokere, P.U.; Islam, M.T.; Grady, T.; Gao, Y. Repurposing Quality-Downgraded Fluorinated Carbon Nanotubes as Eco-Additives in Microgel Composites for Sustained Water Release. Sustainability 2024, 16, 9468.
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Progress 05/01/22 to 04/30/23
Outputs
Target Audience:1. Researchers and Academicians: During this reporting period, weparticipated in the 4thInternational Conference on Materials Science and Engineering, held in Houston, Texas. At the event, we presented key insights and updates on theprogress of this ongoing research projects. Significant breakthroughs were highlighted, such as the development of carbon nanotubes/hydrogel composite self-assembly and the enhancement of water retention properties. These advancements have triggered wide interests amount worldwide researchers in the fields of material science,agriculture and environmental conservation. 2. Underrepresented College Students:During this reporting period, the graduate student supported by this project,Ms. Favour Ezeogu,attended the Annual PVAMU student research day and the Texas A&M University System (TAMUS)Pathway Research Symposium, and presended her research work on the proposedcarbon nanotube/hydrogel composite developement and optimization.The presentationinspired and informed the underrepresented undergraduatestudents at PVAMU, as well as students from other TAMUS members,pursuing careers in agriculture and related fields. We will continue toencourage these students to explore agriculture research opportunities, internships, and mentorship programs that align with their interests and contribute to a more diverse and inclusive agricultural workforce. Changes/Problems:Challenge 1: Project Initiation Delay The project's starting date was initially set for May 1, 2022, but due to several factors, including new PVAMU administrators brought on during the COVID-19 pandemic, the PI being a new researcher with no previously established IDC accounts, and the project involving sub-awards, the project initiation documents were repeatedly started over three timesat PVAMU. The grant only became ready for research expenses in August 2022, causing a significant delay in the project's progress. Challenge 2: Temporarily Lack of Graduate Students The PVAMU Department of Chemistry was unable to secure new graduate students for the Fall semester of 2022 as planned, largely due to the ongoing impact of COVID-19. Eight graduate students from Africa were expected, but VISA delays prevented their timely arrival. As a result, the PI's lab did not have enough research personnel after the previous graduate student graduated in Summer 2022. To address Challenge 2, the PI took the following actions: The PI tried his best to increasehisown time in the lab and conducted CNT-hydrogel composite preparation research independently while waiting for new students to become available. The PI advertised a research assistant position onlinecampus-wide, successfully hiring a student from the College of Engineering to work on the CNT-hydrogel composite development starting from mid-October 2022. In Spring 2023, international students from Africa joined the department after resolving their VISAissues. The PI trained one student, Ms. Favour Ezeogu, who has since made rapid progress and presented her work at two research symposiums. The PVAMU Departmentof Chemistryhassecured another10 graduate students to join inFall 2023, and the PI has reservedat least one of the new studentsfor this USDA-supported research. Challenge 3:Progress in Greenhouse Application Tests Although the team has made significant progress in XCNT/Hydrogel development, delays from Challenge 1 and 2 have resulted in a slower pace for greenhouse and field application tests. However, as the composite material development and optimization are nearing completion and the issues related to project initiation and available student researchers have been resolved, the team expects to accelerate pot-scale and greenhouse-scale tests in the second year. ?Challenge 4: Publication Delay Due to the challenges mentioned above and the team's desire to publish more comprehensive and influential work, no publications have been made based on the current results. The first project-based paper is expected to be published in the second half of 2023, focusing on the discovery of self-assembled XCNT/Hydrogel composites and their superior properties in mechanical strength and water retention, alongside initial pot-scale application studies. More extensive greenhouse-scale studies are planned for publication in 2024. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has provided valuable opportunities for training and professional development, particularly for an M.S. chemistry student from Nigeria, Ms. Favour Ezeogu, who has been actively involved in the research. The student has gained hands-on experience in preparing the hydrogel-urea composites embedded with XCNT nano-skeletons. Additionally, they have acquired proficiency in using advanced analytical equipment such as Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) for characterizing the samples. Moreover, the student has learned how to design and conduct experiments to study the water retention capacity of the composites at different temperatures. This involvement in the project has not only allowed the student to apply their theoretical knowledge but also to develop practical skills and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. As a result, the project has significantly contributed to the student's professional growth and prepared them for a successful career in the field of agriculture, chemistry and material science. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Research Communities: Weparticipated in the 4thInternational Conference on Materials Science and Engineering, held in Houston, Texas. The attendees were from all discipinary fields in materials science.At the event, theprogress of this ongoing research projects have triggered wide interests amount worldwide researchers in the fields of material science,agriculture and environmental conservation. Future young-generation of workforce in Agriculture: We presented our research progressonthe Annual PVAMU student research day and the Texas A&M University System (TAMUS)Pathway Research Symposium. The presentationinspired and informed the underrepresented undergraduatestudents at PVAMU, as well as students from other TAMUS members,pursuing careers in agriculture and related fields. The PI also included the content of this research in his undergraduate courses toencourage students to explore agriculture research opportunities, internships, and mentorship programs that align with their interests and contribute to a more diverse and inclusive agricultural workforce. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?1. We plan to complete the Sample Optimization for the XCNT/PAAm hydrogel composite with a few more charactorizations (most have been done) 2. We plan to systematically compare the differencceandimpact of crosslinked single-walled and multi-walled carbon nanotubes, respectively,on the water retention and mechanical properties of the nanocomposites 3. We plan to embed fertilizers into the optimizedXCNT/hydrogel composite and study the fertilizer releasing behaviors, extending the composites to a multifuntional soil amendment. 4. We plan to start pot-scale, and then greenhouse-scale, application tests for the water retention and controlled fertilizing properties ofXCNT/hydrogel composites in soil. 5. We plan topublish,in the second half of 2023, the first project-based research paper focusing on the discovery ofself-assembledXCNT/Hydrogel composites and their superior properties in mechanical strength and water retention, alongside initial pot-scale application studies. More single-walled CNT/multi-walled CNT comparisionand extensive greenhouse-scale studies are planned for multiple publications in 2024.
Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals?
The research project aimed to develop hydrogelcomposites embedded with crosslinked carbon nanotube (XCNT) nano-skeletons for addressing water-shortage challenges in agriculture while reducing fertilizer loss and environmental impact. The main goal was to build light-and-robust nano-skeletons in hydrogels for maximal swelling ratio in soil under pressure. Three specific objectives were set to achieve this goal. Significant Progress and Results: Objective 1: Synthesis and characterization of hydrogel-urea composites embedded with XCNT nano-skeletons. A highly efficient method was developed to form fluorinated carbon nanotubes (FCNTs)/polyacrylamide(PAAm)hydrogel self-assemblies. We have systematically study the formation of FCNT/PAAm self-assembly via a simple and never reported method, involving controlling to form microgels, selecting the proper solvents, and applying ultrasonication. FCNTs, which do not dissolves in water, can be dispersed well after being assebled on microgels. This is the first discovery of FCNT/Hydrogel self assembly in the field. The optimal percentage of FCNTs was found to be in low dosages between 1-5%. Both the preparation of fluorinated multi-walled CNT composites and fluorinated single-walled CNT composites were optimized, requiring different preparation procedures. TheCNTs in FCNT/Hydrogel composites have been successfully crosslinked to form XCNT/hydrogel composites for water retention and mechanical analysis. The thermal stability of bothFCNT/Hydrogel and XCNT/Hydrogel composites werecharacterized, which showed that their thermal stability following this order:XCNT/Hydrogel > FCNT/Hydrogel >> Hydrogel only. The mechanical strength of the composites was studied. It was discovered that composites with the crosslinked CNT skeleton prevent CNT-hydrogel slippage during drying or centrifuge. Objective 2: Study the efficacy of XCNT-hydrogel-urea nanocomposite in water retention, sustained urea release, and plant growth in the greenhouse This goal is partically achieved water retention studies. It was found that at 35 oC, a temperature facilitating fast evaporation, to release 97% of the uptaken water, the composites with the crosslinked CNT skeleton (XCNT/PAAm)retained the water 70% longer than the non-crosslinked composites (FCNT/PAAm). Accomplishment Summary: Significant progress has been made in the first objective, with a highly efficient method developed for creating hydrogel composites embedded with XCNT nano-skeletons. Thermal stability and mechanical strength were characterized and improved, paving the way for further optimization and testing. The second objective was partially achieved, with initial results showing promising water retention properties. Future Work: We will work on the first publication and patent addressing the novel FCNT/hydrogel self-assembly in the second half of 2023. In order to make accurate controls of CNT/hydrogel composite formation, we need to minimize the possible influence factors. Thus, urea was not included in the first stage study. Further studies will embedded the third component, urea,and study their sustainedrelease. Plantsgrowth in greenhouse conditions will also be studied in the second year. This will be followed by the third objective, which will involve field testing of the XCNT-hydrogel-urea composites to monitor soil moisture, soil quality, and water quality. In conclusion, the research project has made significant progress in synthesizing and characterizing hydrogelcomposites embedded with XCNT nano-skeletons. The initial results are promising and provide a strong foundation for further investigation and optimization of the composites to address the water-shortage challenge in agriculture.
Publications
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