DESIGNING AGRIVOLTAICS FOR SUSTAINABLY INTENSIFYING FOOD AND ENERGY PRODUCTION

• Sponsoring Institution: National Institute of Food and Agriculture
• Project Status: NEW
• Funding Source: AFRI COMPETITIVE GRANT
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 1027532
• Grant No.: 2021-68012-35898
• Project No.: ILLU-470-620
• Proposal No.: 2021-05691
• Program Code: A9201
• Project Start Date: Sep 1, 2021
• Project End Date: Aug 31, 2025
• Grant Year: 2021

Project Director
Khanna, M.

Recipient Organization
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
2001 S. Lincoln Ave.
URBANA,IL 61801

Performing Department
Sponsored Programs Administrat

Non Technical Summary
Declining cost of photovoltaic technology and rising market and policy incentives for solar energy are making it increasingly profitable to convert cropland to solar farms, leading to a potential conflict with food crops. Agrivoltaics (AVs), the co-located production of solar energy and crops, is an emerging technology that can reduce this competition for land, provide climate-smart solutions to improve land productivity (combined crop and electricity yield), crop water-use efficiency, profitability and economic resilience of agriculture. Deployment of AVs in Asia and Europe is growing and there is increasing interest among farmers in the U.S. However, research on AVs has been limited to isolated experimental studies on a few crops in a few regions. We propose the project for Sustainably Colocating Agricultural and Photovoltaic Electricity Systems (SCAPES) to provide the interdisciplinary scientific knowledge, extension and education for designing sustainable AV technologies for diverse crop species (row crops, forage, and specialty crops) across three biophysically diverse regions in the US: Illinois, Colorado and Arizona. SCAPES will couple state-of-the-art field experiments with farm-scale economic analysis, farmer survey and a systems modelling approach to extrapolate biophysical and economic outcomes across the US to address key knowledge gaps and analyze system-wide effects on markets and climate systems. A diverse team of extension specialists and educators will enable interactive engagement with stakeholders to generate and transfer usable knowledge for decision support, inform research design and educate and inspire future leaders about AVs as a timely and value-added innovative solution to sustainable food and energy production.

Animal Health Component

0%

Research Effort Categories

Basic

35%

Applied

35%

Developmental

30%

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
205	2410	1060	30%
601	6030	3010	30%
402	5399	2020	40%

Knowledge Area
601 - Economics of Agricultural Production and Farm Management; 205 - Plant Management Systems; 402 - Engineering Systems and Equipment;

Subject Of Investigation
5399 - Structures, facilities, and equipment, general/other; 2410 - Cross-commodity research--multiple crops; 6030 - The farm as an enterprise;

Field Of Science
2020 - Engineering; 1060 - Biology (whole systems); 3010 - Economics;

Keywords

climate impacts

crop production

economic analysis

ecosystem measurement

solar energy

Goals / Objectives
The overarching goal of this project for Sustainably Colocating Agricultural and Photovoltaic Electricity Systems (SCAPES) is to provide the interdisciplinary scientific knowledge, extension and education for designing sustainable AV technologies that can increase the economic well-being and resilience of US farmers by maintaining/enhancing food production while increasing renewable energy generation across different biophysical environments in the US. SCAPES aligns with the Sustainable Agricultural Systems Program Area Priorities and themes in the USDA Science Blueprint to promote sustainable agricultural intensification, adaptation to a changing climate, and value-added innovation. It will thereby foster economic development and prosperity in rural American communities and contribute to long-term sustainability of agriculture and renewable energy systems. We will achieve the goal of SCAPES through three key objectives:1. Engage stakeholder groups - including farmers, landowners, and solar developers and their associations - in configuring ways in which solar energy can be integrated with food crop production, and tailoring the research design in the three regions to generate and transfer holistic systems knowledge to stakeholders for decision support.2. Design AV systems optimized for location-specific crop productivity, resource needs, and electricity generation under a range of biophysical conditions, establish locally optimized AV Research and Demonstration Sites at three locations (Illinois, Colorado, and Arizona), and extrapolate biophysical and economic outcomes across the US to address key knowledge gaps about the system-wide effects of SCAPES on markets and climate.3. Establish high-impact experiential educational programs integrated with research and extension to teach and foster interest in future agricultural technologies among K-12 children, undergraduate and graduate students, as well as the general public, to advance understanding of the potential benefit of AVs for the country and for US farmers.

Project Methods
We will begin by leveraging existing PV facilites in each region and plant C3 and C4 crop species between panels to learn how they respond to various levels, duration, and timing of shade. We will use data from these experiments to parameterize a coupled crop-PV simulation model that will inform the design of our three Research and Demonstration Sites and provide data to parameterize and validate an integrated national scale economic-ecosystem modeling approach to simulate the spatially varying the Land Equivalent ratio (LER) and Land Evapotranspiration Ratio (LETR) and conduct techno-economic analysis and systems analysis across the US. We will leverage three existing solar farms to assess microclimatic and plant responses to the presence of solar panels: Solar Farm 2.0 at UI, Jack's Solar Garden at CSU and the Agrivoltaics Learning Lab at UA. These existing facilities equipped with PV arrays provide the opportunity to characterize the effects of shade imposed by the presence of solar panels. We will develop a coupled PV model and crop modeling framework that will be parameterized and validated with data from existing solar farms. This framework will represent light transmission and water- and thermal-dynamics in PV systems across regions and integrate it with crop growth models to co-optimize PV-crop design and placement. The effect of shading and changes in direct and diffuse light on crop yields will be modeled using Community Land Model version 5.0 (CLM5.0) which is the land component of the Community Earth System Model (CESM2.0).Three Research and Demonstration sites will be established at the Energy Farm at UI, the Agricultural Research Development andEducation Center at CSU and the Campus Agricultural Center at UA. These sites will be designed to provide the full range of environmental and crop growth conditions in each of the three geographic regions with a specific focus on crop species with the attributes that our modelling identifies as most favorable for AV.We will simulate the effects of optimized AV systems on LER and LETR using crop yields and electricity output from CLM 5.0. Temporal and spatial variability in LER and LETR will be analyzed by using twentyyears of randomized historical climate and future climate scenarios. The historical climate scenario will use the North American Land Data Assimilation System climate data from 2000-2020 with a spatial resolution of 0.1 degree. Future climate scenarios will use climate data from 2031-2050 from selected IPCC's Representative Concentration Pathways and NASA Earth Exchange Downscaled Climate Projections and quantify the uncertainty in future projections. LER and LETR will be estimated at a fourkm scale for the US, using data from the Cropland Data Layer on land types and availability. These analyses will be combined with NREL System Advisor Model to determine the levelized cost of electricity with PV and AV technologies and with estimates of the spatially varying costs of producing a broad range of crops, to estimate the net present value of returns to land and DLR. The DLR with AV systems will be compared with that under crop only or solar farming only.We will analyze the potential implications of aggregate adoption of AVs on commodity and electricity markets by extending the national scale economic model BEPAM (Biofuel and Environmental Policy Analysis Model). BEPAM is a multi-period, spatially explicit, multi-market, systems model of the agricultural, transportation, and electricity sectors in the US.Lastly, we will conduct land-atmosphere coupled simulations by using the Community Earth System Model version 2.0 (CESM2.0), the hosting model for CLM5.0, to investigate the regional climate impact of adopting AVs at large scales. The economically optimal land allocation outputs will be used to run the coupled simulations with CESM with a horizontal resolution of onedegree using climatic conditions from different RCPs (2006-2100). In these land-atmosphere coupled simulations, AV-induced changes in surface radiation condition and carbon-water-momentum fluxes, will feedback into the atmospheric model in CESM and have a direct impact on local and regional climate trajectories in the future.

Progress 09/01/21 to 08/31/22

Outputs
Target Audience:During this reporting period, the target audience for the SCAPES project included farmers and farmer representatives, solar energy developers, educational professionals, our external advisory board members, postdocs,graduate students and the wider public. We formed a Stakeholder Working Group(SWG) to reach out to farmers/landowners and solar energy developers in Illinois, Arizonaand Colorado. There were approximately 70 members on the SWG as of this reporting period. We also created an External Advisory Board (EAB) to actively advise SCAPES research, technology development, educational programs and Extension engagement. We organised several stakeholder engagement events, including the first Stakeholder Working Group (SWG) meeting, which took place on February 17, 2022, and attracted over 50 participants, including solar energy developers, farmers, land owners and other researchers. We successfully organised the project's annual retreat meeting on September 7-9, 2022, in Champaign, which more than 50 participants attended. The Project Director participated in a joint USDA-DOE agrivoltaics workshop in January 2022 to present an overview of the project and discuss opportunities for collaboration. Over 100 participants attended this event. The SCAPES project currently supports over 50 academic researchers, postdocs and graduate students. We have also established working relationships with over 50 business leaders, nonprofit professionals, solar energy developers and farmers across Arizona, Colorado andIllinois. The SCAPES project continues to receive a lot of interest and inquiries from a broad audience, including students, solar developers, farmers, political leaders and the general public. Changes/Problems:Prices of solar panels have increased by 30% over the past year, likely due to increased tariffs on imported components from China. We are having ongoing discussions with solar companies to purchase solar panels and construct the PV/AV sites with the available budgets. We are mitigating this constraint by engaging with Continental Electrical Construction Company and several local solar companies to build our project sites at a reasonable cost. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The SCAPES project team have provided several webinars to share information with stakeholders and the wider public. These meetings have attracted over 150 particiapnts during the first year. We organized the first Stakeholder Working Group (SWG) meeting which was conducted on February 17, 2022 and attracted over 50 participants including solar developers, farmers, land owners and other researchers. Participants discovered information about the SCAPES Project and Goals. An introduction into the basics of agrivoltaics was provided by senior agrivoltaics researchers. Representatives from research, the solar power industry and agriculture each provided their perspectives on agrivoltaics. We organized a joint webinar between the SCAPES project and American Farmland Trust on July 12, 2022, which drew over 70 participants using Zoom. Information from these events was added to the SCAPES website to extend engagement efforts.The SCAPES Extension team also conducted many other training events across the project geography. These include the 2022 Illinois Extension Crop Management Conferences, twoLive Presentations (Mt. Vernon and DeKalb), CropFlix On-line Training module and the 2022 Summer Field Days (Dudley Smith Field Day, Ewing Demonstration Center, Highland Community College Demonstration Plot Day). Professor Madhu Khanna and Professor Greg Barron-Gaffordpresented an overview ofthe SCAPES project at thejoint USDA-DOE Agrivoltaics workshop January 10, 2022. Paul Mwebaze presented an overview of the SCAPES project at the EUCI Online Course on Agrivoltaics and Dual Use Solar, March 24, 2022. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?The SCAPES projectteam conducted many public engagement events across the project geography. These include the 2022 Illinois Extension Crop Management Conferences, twLive Presentations (Mt. Vernon and DeKalb), CropFlix On-line Training module and the 2022 Summer Field Days (Dudley Smith Field Day, Ewing Demonstration Center, Highland Community College Demonstration Plot Day). The team at the University of Arizona have designed and executed a solar industry study to assess motivations, opportunities, and challenges. Data collection began in March 2022 using a purposive sampling technique (based on existing networks and logical categories defined prior to data collection). A total of eightsolar companies, and fourteenindividual participants were engaged. The preliminary results were presented at "AgriVoltaics 2022 Conference & Exhibition" in Piacenza, Italy (June 15-17). Data collection for the agricultural study began in April 2022 with a visit to threeNRCD agricultural meeting sites in Pinal County to introduce the project and solicit possible farmer interviewees. The team also promoted the SCAPES project during the AgriSolar Clearinghouse's "Follow the Sun Tour" in Tucson, Arizonaon 4/5/22. The key findings from the stakeholder workshop indicate a strong interest in ecosystem services (pollinators) from the solar perspective. From the farmer perspective, there is uncertainty about which crops are most suitable for AV. Scale considerations are also important from a solar developer's perspective. The economics team is conducting detailed analysis to demonstrate profitability of AV for farmers and landowners.Paul Mwebaze presented the preliminary economics results at the Society for Benefit-Cost Analysis 2022 Annual Conference, on March 23, 2022. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Year TwoPlans Thrust 1: Crop Physiology The University of Arizona team plans to utilize existing agrivoltaics arrays to quantify crop physiology in Arizona and Colorado. In Arizona, this will span Spring, Summer, and Fall/Winter growing seasons; in Colorado this will occur in the winter with alliums (onions and shallots) and in single warm growing season with a variety of specialty crops. We will work with Colorado and Illinois teams to design the SCAPES Experimental AV Arrays (EAVAs). EAVAs will be as similar as possible but also allow all teams to do the best site-based science, while also meeting the data needs of the project and allowing for cross-site integration.They also plan to integrate early findings into evolving regional models led by NREL and the University of Arizona.The team at CSU plans to establish PV research infrastructure and continue research at Jacks Solar Garden. Thrust 2: Solar Panel Optimization and Modeling Regarding Year Two, firstly, we plan to accelerate the simulation process based on GPU, which can make sense when implementing the Multi-Objective Optimization Design (MOOD) based on a series of evolutionary algorithms, such as NSGA-II, NSGA-III, SMPSO, OMOPSO, MOEA/D, MOEA/D-DRA, MOEA/D-IEpsilon, GDE3, SPEA2, HYPE, IBEA, etc. Secondly, we plan to add more sophisticated crop growth and economic models into the present AV model (SCAPES_Solar_Beta), and further investigate the correlation between the Multi-Objective Optimization Design (MOOD) results based on daily/monthly/annual results. Finally, we plan to do the scalability research in terms of the AV farm size. We are going to explore the MOOD correlation between a small-sized AV farm (~ 1000 kW) and a large-sized one (~ Gigawatt). Thrust 3: Modeling SCAPES Impacts at Landscape Scale The economic team led by UIUC researchers will continue to analyze the profitability of AV systems compared to crops only or solar only using data on a 4km x 4 km grid across the contiguous U.S.The UIUC team will also analyze the spatially varying riskiness and returns with AV compared to solar only or crops only.We plan to provide an understanding of the economic incentives for the adoption of AV by solar energy developers and farmers.We have developed plans to conduct two focus groups in December 2022 with solar energy developers and farmers with the full surveys to be administered in 2023. Auburn researchers will examine the economic incentives for the adoption of AV by farmers, considering their risk, time, and loss preferences. To help with this scope of the work, two new students and a postdoc joined the team in 2022 and will be involved in the work at Auburn University. Finally, the economics team, led by Auburn, will examine the contract designs between solar developers and farmers, and the impacts of the designs on AV adoptions by developers and by farmers. Thrust 4: Extension Additional stakeholder focus group sessions are being scheduled for December 2022 one targeted at solar developers and the other at farmers. Additional engagement events will be held for additional education about Agrivoltaics, demonstrating and sharing information about the app, and reporting on initial research results. Thrust 5: Education The education team plans to continue developing the AV Simulation App. We plan to do App testing and iterations to improve usability, expand content, and refine underlying models. Undergraduate and Graduate Instruction on AV Systems are also being planned for Year Twowith the inclusion of app into UIUC College of Education courses. Dissemination and Outreach with K-12 and Public Audiences is also being planned. We are also developing summer camp materials and museum displays, in coordination with the AZ team.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Thrust 1: Crop Physiology The team at Colorado State University (CSU) is investigating the impacts of photovoltaic systems on grassland health and function. Grassland agrivoltaics, or solar grazing, has the potential to reduce land-use tension in dryland ecosystems and can provide ranchers and land owners with increased income and income stability. In summer 2022, we have made extensive measurements regarding how photovoltaic arrays impact microclimate and grass physiology. We have also collected data to quantify how grassland agrivoltaic arrays impact various ecosystem services such as forage quantity/quality, soil carbon, and nutrient availability. Finally, we are using a vegetation model to simulate how grassland agrivoltaic arrays impact carbon/water cycling, and to understand how these systems alter grassland responses to weather extremes such as droughts and heat waves. These results will benefit the public by providing data on how grassland agrivoltaic systems impact the ability of these ecosystems to provide various ecosystem services (including forage production) under a wide range of environmental conditions, in addition to developing a modeling framework that can be used to assess grassland agrivoltaic projects in other ecosystems. The University of Arizona (UA) team is investigating crop physiology, yield, and phenological responses to the novel microclimate and the dynamic light/shade environment created by agrivoltaic conditions in two pre-existing sites: Biosphere 2 in Southern Arizona and Jack's Solar Garden in Colorado. The two sites are located within hot semi-arid and cold semi-arid climate, respectively. Throughout summer 2022, data was collected from a variety of crops exposed to different experimental treatments related to irrigation and shade/light zones. At Biosphere 2, measurements were made on tomato and zucchini squash in summer 2022. Currently the team is studying two growing cycles of lettuce at Biosphere 2: fall 2022 and winter 2023. At Jack's Solar Garden, the UA team led measures of phenology and yield on four varieties of peppers, two varieties of tomatoes, four varieties of kale, four varieties of beans, four varieties of potatoes, and several herbs, including celery and basil. Additionally, the UA team was joined by a graduate student from the team at the University of Illinois Urbana Champaign (UIUC) for a week long campaign of extensive ecophysiological measurements were made on tomatoes and basil across 14 treatments combining different timing and levels of irradiance and irrigation settings as well as solar panel heights. Thrust 2: Solar Panel Optimization During this reporting period, the solar PV team have developed an open-source AVs model called SCAPES_Solar_Beta based on the Python programming language. The solar results have been validated using a rigorous comparison between our model and several other PV software design tools such as Energy 3D and PV Education. In addition, a Multi-Objective Optimization Design (MOOD) has been implemented into our model based on different seasons and crop species.We have used the AV model developed to design the experimental AV plots, which we will build and operate at the threefield sites in Illinois, Arizona, and Colorado. We have investigated the effect of design parameters including pitch, pole height, tracking scheme, site, and AV farm size on the potential Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) for crops and PV energy yield. Meanwhile, we have also conducted a MOOD for two objectives: PV energy yield and PAR; based on two design parameters: pitch and pole height. Thrust 3: Modeling SCAPES Impacts at Landscape Scale The biophysical modeling group at UIUC has been developing a new parameterization scheme for the effect of AV on surface energy budget and crop growth in the Community Land Model version 5 (CLM5). The team has successfully set up CLM5 experiments over multiple cropland sites with flux tower observations and are now working on the code development and debugging. Once the AV is fully implemented in the CLM5 model, we will test the impacts of AV over those flux tower sites and collect data from other collaborating teams to validate the model. In addition, the economics team led by UIUC researchers has developed an economic framework for evaluating the spatially varying levelized cost of electricity production (LCOE) and profitability for three options facing farmers and landowners: (1) crops only, (2) solar only, and (3) combined crop and solar (agrivoltaics) option. We have implemented an initial proof of concept using data for fourcounties in Illinois (Champaign, DeKalb, Jackson and McDonough). We have developed a working collaboration with researchers from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to create and evaluate elevenpotential scenarios/configurations to examine the spatial profitability of PV/AV. The preliminary results indicate that the LCOE of AV is higher than that of solar PV alone by approximately 33%, which is consistent with the literature and solar industry estimates. Further, we found that the profitability of PV is higher compared to either agriculture alone or AV. Thrust 4: Extension The SCAPES extension team have organized several stakeholder engagement events, including the first Stakeholder Working Group (SWG) meeting which was conducted on February 17, 2022 and attracted over 50 participants including solar developers, farmers, land owners and other researchers. Participants discovered information about the SCAPES Project and Goals. An introduction into the basics of agrivoltaics was provided. Representatives from research, the solar power industry and agriculture each provided their perspectives on agrivoltaics. Participants were assigned to breakout groups and asked for feedback on a series of questions to inform the research on areas such as existing solar systems, crops to consider, opportunities, obstacles, and research needs. Also, a joint webinar between the SCAPES project and American Farmland Trust was held on July 12, 2022, which drew over 70 participants using Zoom. Information from these events was added to the SCAPES website to extend engagement efforts in an asynchronous fashion. Thrust 5: Education The education team began development of the proposed agrivoltaics app intended for the public and focused on middle- to high-school level understanding of science. Two team members (Chad Lane and Carl Bernacchi) traveled to Green Bay, WI for the app design kickoff meeting with Balance Studios, contracted to develop the app. In the two-day meeting, the teams discussed the educational research plan, software development plan, evaluation plans, and identified key requirements, design features, and content needed for the app development. Initial design work has been completed, including settings (Arizona, Colorado, and Illinois), available crops in first playable, user interface style and features, simulation requirements, crop growth animations, and art style. Chad Lane and Balance team met with Greg Barron-Gafford and Carl Bernacchi to discuss the AV app simulation and potential first-playable scenarios (which will be set in Arizona in the app). This first playable will enable players to plant crops, place solar panels, and experiment with different configurations. The output will be energy and crop yields and translated into monetary value. The app is on schedule for an October evaluation with museum partners. Samantha Lindgren and Madhu Khanna met with Iris Caldwell, Caroline Hernandez, and Ben Campbell to discuss ways that the education thrust's deliverables may be incorporated into the University of Illinois Chicago (UIC)'s current programming. Work has been initiated to develop curricular materials around the app to be used in the STEM Scholars Program and in the high school internship program that Hernandez organizes with a focus on climate justice and literacy.

Publications

• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Mwebaze P, Khanna M., Majeed F, Miao R, McCall J, and Macknick J. 2022. Spatial and temporal variability in the profitability of agrivoltaics in the U.S. The Third Society for Benefit-Cost Analysis: European Conference Paris, November 3-4, 2022.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Pascaris A, Gerlak A, and Barron-Gafford G. 2022. Understanding the dynamic forces driving agrivoltaic innovation in the U.S.: Perspectives from the solar ndustry. Poster presentation at AgriVoltaics 2022 Conference & Exhibition in Piacenza, Italy (June 15-17).
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Barron-Gafford G, Murphy P, Salazar A, Barnett-Moreno I, Lepley K, Rouini N, and Macknick J. 2022. Agrivoltaics as a cure for midday depression: Shade from PV provides respite for food crops in drylands. Invited talk presentation at AgriVoltaics 2022 Conference & Exhibition in Piacenza, Italy (June 15-17).
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Lepley K, Barron-Gafford G, Salazar A, and Murphy P. 2022. Monitoring agrivoltaic crop performance and phenology with a low-cost camera sSystem. Invited talk presentation at AgriVoltaics 2022 Conference & Exhibition in Piacenza, Italy (June 15-17).
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Khanna M, ad Barron-Gafford GA. 2022. Designing agrivoltaics for sSustainably intensifying food and energy production. USDA-DOE Agrivoltaics Workshop, January 10, 2022.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2022 Citation: Sturchio, M.A., J.E. Macknick, G.A. Barron-Gafford, A. Chen, C. Alderfer, K. Condon, O.L. Hajek, B. Miller, B. Pauletto, J.A. Siggers, I.J. Slette, and A.K. Knapp. 2022. Grassland productivity responds unexpectedly to dynamic light and soil water environments induced by photovoltaic arrays. Ecosphere (Accepted).
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2023 Citation: Gomez-Casanovas N, Mwebaze P, Khanna M, Branham B, Time A, Bernacchi C, Knapp A, Miljovic N, Hoque MJ, Du X, Blanc-Betes E, Barron-Gafford GA, Peng B, Guan K, Macknick J, Miao R, and DeLucia EH. 2023. Agrivoltaics to sustainably intensify food and energy productionknowns, uncertainties and challenges. In prep. Target journal: Joule.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Gomez-Casanovas N, Mwebaze P, Khanna M, Branham B, Time A, Bernacchi C, Knapp A, Miljovic N, Hoque MJ, Du X, Blanc-Betes E, Barron-Gafford GA, Peng B, Guan K, Macknick J, Miao R, and DeLucia EH. 2022. The potential for Agrivoltaics to sustainably intensify food and energy production. AGU 2022 Conference (Virtual).
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Mwebaze P, Khanna M., Majeed F, Miao R, McCall J, and Macknick J. 2022. A spatially varying levelized cost of electricity and profitability of agrivoltaics in the U.S. The Society for Benefit-Cost Analysis 2022 Annual Conference, March 22, 2022.