Source: UNIV OF MASSACHUSETTS submitted to NRP
OPTIMIZATION OF SOFT MATTER PHYSICS APPROACHES FOR THE CREATION OF NEXT-GENERATION PLANT-BASED MEATS
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
COMPLETE
Funding Source
AFRI COMPETITIVE GRANT
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
1024279
Grant No.
2021-67017-33336
Cumulative Award Amt.
$476,270.00
Proposal No.
2020-03921
Multistate No.
(N/A)
Project Start Date
Jan 1, 2021
Project End Date
Dec 31, 2024
Grant Year
2021
Program Code
[A1364]- Novel Foods and Innovative Manufacturing Technologies
Recipient Organization
UNIV OF MASSACHUSETTS
(N/A)
AMHERST,MA 01003
Performing Department
Dept: Food Sciences
Non Technical Summary
The global population is predicted to grow to around 10 billion by 2050, with more people moving to cities, becoming wealthier, and changing their dietary habits.The resulting increase in demand for a more Western-style diet is putting pressure on the global food supply.The consumption of high levels of animal products (especially beef) is a major factor contributing to the negative impact of the modern diet on the environment.For this reason, many consumers are interested in switching to a more plant-based diet to improve their health, increase sustainability, reduce pollution, and decrease energy, land, and water use.This has led to a rapidly growing market for plant-based foods, particularly plant-based meats, which is predicted to reach over $21 billion by 2025.Most of the current products are designed to mimic highly processed products containing ground or comminuted meat, such as burgers, sausages, and nuggets.These products contain meat fragments that are relatively simple to mimic with texturized plant proteins.There is, however, a need for more sophisticated plant-based foods that can mimic the properties of whole muscle meat products such as chicken breast, beef steak, or pork chops.Consumers expect these products to have specific quality attributes, such as appearance, texture, mouthfeel, and flavor, as well as familiar functional attributes such as cookability.Using existing technologies, it has proved extremely challenging to create plant-based meat analogs that accurately simulate the unique characteristics of whole muscle meats.This is holding back the environmental benefits that would be gained if more people replaced some or all of the animal foods in their diets with more sustainable plant-based alternatives.The purpose of this project is to developsoft-matter physicsapproaches to create the next generation of high-quality plant-based meat analogs.These approaches are based on understanding and controlling the structural organization of the molecules within a material so as to create specific physicochemical, functional, and sensory attributes, such as appearance, texture, mouthfeel, flavor, stability, and cookability.In this project, plant-based proteins and dietary fibers will be used as the main building blocks, while soft matter physics approaches will be used to assemble them into specific meat-like structures.Moreover, the relationship between product composition, structure, physicochemical, and sensory properties will be established.The knowledge gained from this project should provide information that the food industry can use to create better quality plant-based meat analogs for whole muscle meats.
Animal Health Component
25%
Research Effort Categories
Basic
75%
Applied
25%
Developmental
(N/A)
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
50122992000100%
Knowledge Area
501 - New and Improved Food Processing Technologies;

Subject Of Investigation
2299 - Miscellaneous and new crops, general/other;

Field Of Science
2000 - Chemistry;
Goals / Objectives
The purpose of this project is to critically evaluate the potential of usingsoft-matter physicsapproaches to create the next generation of high-quality plant-based meat analogs.These approaches are based on understanding and controlling the structural organization of the molecules within a material so as to create specific physicochemical, functional, and sensory attributes, such as appearance, texture, mouthfeel, flavor, stability, and cookability.In this project, plant-based proteins and polysaccharides will be used as the main building blocks, while soft matter physics approaches will be used to assemble them into specific meat-like structures.Moreover, the relationship between product composition, structure, physicochemical, and sensory properties will be established.The knowledge gained from this project should provide information that the food industry can use to create better quality plant-based meat analogs for whole muscle meats. The following specific aims will be addressed:1. Optimization of soft-matter physics approaches for creating plant-based meat analogs:The potential of a number of soft matter physics approaches for creating meat analogs from plant-based ingredients will be critically evaluated: (i) heat-induced fibrillation; (ii) controlled phase separation-gelation; and (iii) lipid droplet formation.Our aim is to create hierarchical structures in plant-based foods from the nanoscale to the microscale that mimic those formed by muscle proteins, connective tissue, and adipose tissue in whole muscle meats.The microstructure of these plant-based meat analogs will be related to their physicochemical attributes: appearance, texture, and water holding.At the completion of these experiments, we will have gained a good understanding of the link between the structural organization of plant-based meat analogs and their physicochemical properties.2. Optimization of functional performance of plant-based meat analogs: Plant-based meat analogs are usually chilled or frozen to increase their shelf life, and then cooked prior to consumption.Cooking may be carried out using a variety of methods including baking, boiling, broiling, frying, and microwaving.Cooling or heating meat analogs will alter their appearance, texture, integrity, and moisture holding properties.For this reason, we will systematically examine the impact of temperature changes on the properties of the meat analogs, and, if necessary, identify effective strategies to improve their functional performance under different thermal conditions.3. Development of model plant-based meat analogs:As a proof-of-concept, the knowledge gained from the previous sections will be used to create a plant-based chicken breast analog.Plant-based colors and flavors will be added to the product and then it will be prepared using standardized cooking methods.The physicochemical and sensory attributes of the cooked product will then be compared to that of real chicken meat using a non-vegetarian panel.
Project Methods
Aim 1: Utilization of soft-matter physics approaches to create plant-based meat analogsCharacterization of Plant-based Proteins and PolysaccharidesA wide range of pulse proteins are available that can be used to create meat analogs, includinge.g.,peas, beans, lentils, and chickpeas.Initially, however, we will focus on the utilization of pea proteins because there are already well-established in the market and high-quality versions of these ingredients are commercially available.Similarly, a wide range of plant-based polysaccharides are available that could be used to create meat-like structures when used in combination with pulse proteins,e.g.,pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, exudate gums, mucilage gums, and starches.Initially, we will focus on the utilization of pectin because high quality ingredients with well characterized properties (molecular weight and degree of esterification) are also commercially available.Creation of fibrous nanostructures through protein fibrillationThe nanostructure of whole muscle tissue will be simulated by promoting the formation of protein fibrils from globular plant proteins.This will be achieved by heating a solution of plant proteins above their thermal denaturation temperature, using solution conditions (pH and ionic strength) that promote the assembly of the protein molecules into thin fibers, as described in our previous studies.The nanostructure of the protein fibers will be determined using electron microscopy.Creation of fibrous microstructures through phase separation, shearing and gellingThe microstructure of whole muscle tissues will be simulated by promoting the formation of micro-scale protein fibers based on controlled phase separation, shearing, and gelling.This method is based on the phase separation of biopolymer mixtures that occurs under certain conditions due tothermodynamic incompatibility.Optimum shearing and gelling conditions will be established.Computer simulations: The above experiments will be guided by the results obtained from fluid dynamic simulations of phase-separated liquids.The relationship between shearing conditions and the structures formed in phase-separated polymer mixtures with different properties will be systematically investigated, such as the viscosity ratio and volume ratio between the inner (protein) and outer (pectin) biopolymer phases. Computer simulations predict that different filamentous structures are formed in systems with different viscosity ratios under the same shearing conditions (Figure14). Thus, our goal is to characterize the role ofviscosity ratioon filament formation in the biopolymer mixtures under various shearing conditions using both simulations and experiments.In addition, we hypothesize that the volume ratio of the two biopolymer phases (?A/?B) will play a critical role in the formation of fibrous structures. Therefore, a systematic numerical investigation will be conducted on how the individual fibers interact with each other through coalescence and breakup as the volume ratio changes. Our Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations will therefore provide valuable insights into the physical basis of fiber formation in biopolymer mixtures that will guide our design of more accurate meat-like structures.Creation of adipose tissue-like structures using lipid dropletsOnce the optimum conditions for creating meat-like nanoscale and microscale structures from pea proteins and pectin have been identified, we will examine the impact of incorporating the lipid droplets on the structure and physicochemical properties of the meat analogs.Lipid droplets with characteristics similar to the fat cells in adipose tissue will be fabricated using a mechanical homogenizer. The size of the lipid droplets will be controlled by careful selection of homogenizer type (e.g.,high shear mixer or high-pressure homogenizer) and operating conditions (e.g.,shear rate, shear time, pressure, or number of passes).The surface characteristics of the lipid droplets will be varied by changing emulsifier type.Plant-based oils and emulsifiers will be used to fabricate the lipid droplets.Optimization of the fabrication of meat analogsWe will carry out a series of experiments to establish the structure-function relationships of the meat analogs:Appearance: The appearance of meats and meat-analogs will be quantified by measuring their tristimulus color coordinates (L*, a*, b*) using an instrumental colorimeter.Texture:The texture of the samples will be quantified using compression and shear rheology, as well as diffusing wave spectroscopy method.Water holding and activity:The water holding capacity of the meat and meat-analog samples will be determined using a centrifugation method. The water activity (aw) will be determined using an instrumental method.Aim 2:Optimization of functional performance of plant-based meat analogsOnce plant-based meat analogs have been created using soft matter physics approaches, it will be important that they have functional attributes that closely resemble real meat.We will examine the impact on chilling and freeze-thaw cycling on the properties of the meat analogs.The properties of freshly prepared samples will first be characterized using the methods described above (appearance, texture, water holding).They will then be subjected to chilling and freezing processes, and their properties analyzed again.The impact of different cooking methods on the structural and physicochemical properties of selected plant-based meat analogs will be systematically tested.Meat analogs will be cut into cubes and then cooked under standardized conditions, microwave, boil, bake, broil, fry:After cooking, the microstructure, appearance, morphology (shape, size), texture, and cooking loss of the meat and meat analog samples will be measured.Aim 3:Development of model plant-based meat productsThe final series of experiments is designed as a proof-of-concept - to demonstrate the potential for soft matter physics principles to create high-quality meat analogs that consumers find acceptable.Based on the results from the earlier experiments, we will select a limited number of formulations that have physicochemical and functional attributes that most closely resemble those of whole muscle meat.The appearance, texture, fluid holding properties, and sensory attributes of these samples will then be quantified and compared.

Progress 01/01/21 to 12/31/24

Outputs
Target Audience:The major target audience for this research is for academic, industrial, and government scientists in the food industry, especially those interested in the formulation of next-generation plant-based food products, like meat or seafood analogs. Changes/Problems:We developed plant-based meat analogs and tested their physicochemicoal properties (such as appearance, texture, and cookability). However, thesensory part of the project could not be performed because these products were not entirely food grade. Nevertheless, the science behind the formulation of these projects could be used by food manufacturers to create plant-based meat analogs that could be tested by sensory analysis. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has involved training a Ph.D. student, several undergraduate students, and a Post Doc on the fundamental science behind the formulation and testing of next-generation plant-based food products. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?The research has been disseminated through publications in scientific journals, as well as in presentations at scientific conferences, symposia, and workshops.It has also been disseminated through podcast, Radio, and TV interviews. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Over the course of the project, we have made majorprogress in meeting the objectives of the project.We have shown how different kinds of soft matter physics approaches based on phase separation-shearing-setting can be used to form fibrous meat-like analogs from pland-derived ingredients. In these methods, phase separation is based onthermodynamic incompatiblity or coacervation. We have shown that a variety of plant-, microbial- and seaweed-derived proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids can be used to formulate these products. In particular, potato protein-gellan gum combinations were shown to be particularly useful because of their ability to create chicken-like structures.As part of this research, we have examined the impact of solubilization conditions on the performance of biopolymer blends and shown that different structures and textures can be obtained by controlling dissolution conditions of the biopolymers.We have also shown that different kinds of gellan gum (low or high acyl) have different textural attributes, such as soft and hard.This allows us to create meat-like products with different textures for different applications.We have used color matching theory to create plant-based meat products with appearances that resemble animal-based foods.This is achieved by blending together three different kinds of natural pigments (red, blue, and yellow) in different proportions.We have also examined the simulation gastrointestinal fate of meat analogs, such as their digestibility and bioavailability, which is important for creating healthier plant-based foods. We have also created plant-basedadipose tissue using emulsoin technology and examined the impact of oil type, droplet size, and droplet concentration on the properties of meat analogs.A variety of plant-based foods have been developed based on the knowledge gained from the studies. We have also examined the in vitro gastrointestinal fate of plant-based versus animal-based food products, and shown that the proteins in the plant-based products are typically less digestible, which has important nutritional consequences.

Publications

  • Type: Peer Reviewed Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Hu XY, Zhou HL, & McClements DJ. 2023. Impact of dispersion conditions and coacervation on fibril formation in gellan gum-potato protein mixtures. Food Hydrocolloids 145.
  • Type: Peer Reviewed Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Hu XY, Ju Q, Koo CKW, & McClements DJ. 2024. Influence of complex coacervation on the structure and texture of plant-based protein-polysaccharide composites. Food Hydrocolloids 147.
  • Type: Peer Reviewed Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Kobata K, Zhang ZY, & McClements DJ. 2023. Creation of Next-Generation Plant-Based Seafood Using Emulsion Gel Technology: Omega-3-Enriched Sea Foie Gras Analogs. Colloids and Interfaces 7.
  • Type: Peer Reviewed Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: McClements DJ. 2024. Soft matter physics approaches for creating plant-based meat analogs. Current Opinion in Food Science 55.
  • Type: Peer Reviewed Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2024 Citation: Wannasin D, Grossmann L, & McClements DJ. 2024. Optimizing the Appearance of Plant-based Foods Using Natural Pigments and Color Matching Theory. Food Biophysics 19:120-30.


Progress 01/01/23 to 12/31/23

Outputs
Target Audience:The major target audience for this research is for academic, industrial, and government scientists in the food industry, especially those interested in the formulation of next-generation plant-based food products, like meat or seafood analogs. Changes/Problems:We have found that many plant protein and polysaccharides are challenging to work with, and are developing strategies to overcome this (e.g., they have poor solubility, contistency or functionality) What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has involved training a Ph.D. student, several undergraduate students, and a Post Doc on the fundamental science behind the formulation and testing of next-generation plant-based food products. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?The research has been disseminated through publications in scientific journals, as well as in presentations at scientific conferences, symposia, and workshops.It has also been disseminated through TV interviews (Korean TV). What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?We intend to continue to identify optimum combinations of plant-based proteins and polysaccharides to formulate plant based adipose, muscle and connective tissues, as well as to understand the science behing their formulation.We also intend to test the physicochemical and sensory attributes of these products, as well as their simulated digestion.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Over the past year, we have made further progress in meeting the objectives of the project.We have continued to study the impact of controlled heating, phase separation, and gelation on the physicochemical properties of different kinds of plant-, microbial- and seaweed-derived proteins and polysaccharides, including duckweed, soy, pea, and potato proteins, as well as high and low acyl gellan gums, agar, alginate, and methyl cellulose.We have also published papers on proposing standardized methods to characterize the properties of plant-based foods, including their optical, rheological, emulsifying, gelling, cooking, and binding properties.We have developed an innovative mathematical model based on light scattering theory to relate the appearance of plant-based foods to their structure and composition, including the type and amount of natural pigments they contain.We have assembled plant-based adipose tissue from plant proteins, lipids and polysaccharides, and shown that it has similar appearance, texture, and melting behavior to real adipose tissue.We have also examined the stability of the plant-based adipose tissue to cooking and freezing.We have created plant-based analogs of seafood products (such as scallops) and studied their physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility.The PB scallops were assembled using soft matter physics principles and had similar properties to real scallops.We have shown that sustainable plant proteins can be used to create oil-in-in-water emulsions with good stability, which could be used to introduce functional lipids into foods.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hu, X. Y., Zhou, H. L., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Utilization of emulsion technology to create plant-based adipose tissue analogs: Soy-based high internal phase emulsions. Food Structure-Netherlands, 33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2022.100290.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hu, X. Y., & McClements, D. J. (2022a). Construction of plant-based adipose tissue using high internal phase emulsions and emulsion gels. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2022.103016.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hu, X. Y., & McClements, D. J. (2022b). Development of Plant-Based Adipose Tissue Analogs: Freeze-Thaw and Cooking Stability of High Internal Phase Emulsions and Gelled Emulsions. Foods, 11(24). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11243996.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hu, X. Y., Zhou, H. L., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Impact of dispersion conditions and coacervation on fibril formation in gellan gum-potato protein mixtures. Food Hydrocolloids, 145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109153.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2023 Citation: Li, S. S., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Controlling textural attributes of plant-based emulsions using heteroaggregation of cationic and anionic potato protein-coated oil droplets. Food Hydrocolloids, 145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109126.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: McClements, D. J. (2023). Ultraprocessed plant-based foods: Designing the next generation of healthy and sustainable alternatives to animal-based foods. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 22(5), 3531-3559. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.13204.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: McClements, D. J., Lu, J. K., & Grossmann, L. (2022). Proposed Methods for Testing and Comparing the Emulsifying Properties of Proteins from Animal, Plant, and Alternative Sources. Colloids and Interfaces, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/colloids6020019.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: McClements, I. F., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Designing healthier plant-based foods: Fortification, digestion, and bioavailability. Food Research International, 169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112853.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Tan, Y. B., Wannasin, D., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Utilization of potato protein fractions to form oil-in-water nanoemulsions: Impact of pH, salt, and heat on their stability. Food Hydrocolloids, 137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108356.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Vu, G., Xiang, X. K., Zhou, H. L., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Lutein-Fortified Plant-Based Egg Analogs Designed to Improve Eye Health: Formation, Characterization, In Vitro Digestion, and Bioaccessibility. Foods, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12010002.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Vu, G., Zhou, H. L., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Impact of cooking method on properties of beef and plant-based burgers: Appearance, texture, thermal properties, and shrinkage. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100355.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Wannasin, D., Grossmann, L., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Optimizing the Appearance of Plant-based Foods Using Natural Pigments and Color Matching Theory. Food Biophysics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11483-023-09809-3.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Wannasin, D., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Optimizing the Appearance of plant-based Foods: Impact of Pigment and Droplet Characteristics on Optical Properties of Model oil-in-water Emulsions. Food Biophysics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11483-022-09771-6.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Zhang, Z. Y., Kobata, K., Pham, H., Kos, D., Tan, Y. B., Lu, J. K., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Production of Plant-Based Seafood: Scallop Analogs Formed by Enzymatic Gelation of Pea Protein-Pectin Mixtures. Foods, 11(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11060851.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Zhang, Z. Y., Qin, D. K., Kobata, K., Rao, J. J., Lu, J. K., & McClements, D. J. (2023). An In Vitro Comparison of the Digestibility and Gastrointestinal Fate of Scallops and Plant-Based Scallop Analogs. Foods, 12(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12152928.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Zhou, H. L., Hu, X. Y., Xiang, X. K., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Modification of textural attributes of potato protein gels using salts, polysaccharides, and transglutaminase: Development of plant-based foods. Food Hydrocolloids, 144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.108909.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Zhou, H. L., Qin, D. K., Vu, G., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Impact of Operating Parameters on the Production of Nanoemulsions Using a High-Pressure Homogenizer with Flow Pattern and Back Pressure Control. Colloids and Interfaces, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/colloids7010021.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Zhou, H. L., Tan, Y. B., & McClements, D. J. (2023). Applications of the INFOGEST In Vitro Digestion Model to Foods: A Review. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 14, 135-156. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-060721-012235.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Zhou, H. L., Vu, G., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Formulation and characterization of plant-based egg white analogs using RuBisCO protein. Food Chemistry, 397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133808.


Progress 01/01/22 to 12/31/22

Outputs
Target Audience:The major target audience for this research is for academic, industrial, and government scientists in the food industry, especially those interested in the formulation of next-generation plant-based food products, like meat or seafood analogs. Changes/Problems:Due to the challenges in formulating accurate meat analogs, we have had to examine a range of other proteins and polysaccharides and preparation methods based on soft matter physics, but we are still progressing towards the final goal. We have also had some changes in personal (Post-Doc), which has meant that we had to train a new person. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has involved training a Ph.D. student, several undergraduate students, and a Post Doc on the fundamental science behind the formulation and testing of next-generation plant-based food products. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?The research has been disseminated through publications in scientific journals, as well as in presentations at scientific conferences, symposia, and workshops.It has also been disseminated through podcast, Radio, and TV interviews. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?We intend to identify optimum combinations of plant-based proteins and polysaccharides to formulate plant based adipose, muscle and connective tissues, as well as to optimize the processing conditions required to create plant-based foods.We also intend to test the physicochemical and sensory attributes of these products, as well as their simulated digestion.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? During the past year, we have made significant progress in meeting the projects objectives.We have continued to study the impact of controlled heating, phase separation, and gelation on the physicochemical properties of different combinations of plant-derived proteins and polysaccharides, such as duckweed, lupin, pea, soy, and potato proteins, and gellan gum, pectin and methyl cellulose polysaccharides.We have shown that plant-based soft matter materials with different mechanical, optical, and other physicochemical properties (hardness, brittles, color, opacity, water holding, cookability properties) can be produced using different types and concentrations of proteins and polysaccharides, as well as by changing preparation conditions.In comes cases, transglutaminase (a food-grade crosslinking enzyme) can be used to increase the gel strength and robustness of these biopolymer composites, thereby making more meat-like structures and textures.We have also shown that different plant proteins can be used to formulate oil-in-in-water emulsions that can be used to incorporate functional lipids into plant-based foods. We have continued to study the design and fabrication of plant-based adipose tissue using advanced emulsion technology, such as high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) and emulsion gels.These products are designed to simulate the appearance and texture of real (beef) adipose tissue.Several analytical techniques have been used to characterize the properties of these materials, such as colorimetry, confocal microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, textural analysis, particle electrophoresis, and light scattering.The properties of these adipose tissue analogs have been compared to those of real beef fat.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hu, X. Y., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Construction of plant-based adipose tissue using high internal phase emulsions and emulsion gels. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 78.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hu, X. Y., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Plant-based adipose tissue developed using advanced emulsion technology: Comparison of soy-based high internal phase emulsions with beef adipose tissue. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 99, 78-78.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hu, X. Y., Zhou, H. L., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Utilization of emulsion technology to create plant-based adipose tissue analogs: Soy-based high internal phase emulsions. Food Structure-Netherlands, 33.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Ma, K. K., Greis, M., Lu, J. K., Nolden, A. A., McClements, D. J., & Kinchla, A. J. (2022). Functional Performance of Plant Proteins. Foods, 11(4).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: McClements, D. J., Lu, J. K., & Grossmann, L. (2022). Proposed Methods for Testing and Comparing the Emulsifying Properties of Proteins from Animal, Plant, and Alternative Sources. Colloids and Interfaces, 6(2).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Tan, Y. B., Lee, P. W., Martens, T. D., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Comparison of Emulsifying Properties of Plant and Animal Proteins in Oil-in-Water Emulsions: Whey, Soy, and RuBisCo Proteins. Food Biophysics, 17(3), 409-421.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Tan, Y. B., & McClements, D. J. (2021). Plant-Based Colloidal Delivery Systems for Bioactives. Molecules, 26(22).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Vu, G., Zhou, H. L., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Impact of cooking method on properties of beef and plant-based burgers: Appearance, texture, thermal properties, and shrinkage. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 9.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Zhang, Z. Y., Kobata, K., Pham, H., Kos, D., Tan, Y. B., Lu, J. K., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Production of Plant-Based Seafood: Scallop Analogs Formed by Enzymatic Gelation of Pea Protein-Pectin Mixtures. Foods, 11(6).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Zhou, H. L., Vu, G., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Rubisco proteins as plant-based alternatives to egg white proteins: Characterization of thermal gelation properties. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 99, 169-169.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: McClements, D. J., & Grossmann, L. (2021). The science of plant-based foods: Constructing next-generation meat, fish, milk, and egg analogs. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 20(4), 4049-4100.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: McClements, D. J., & Grossmann, L. (2021a). A brief review of the science behind the design of healthy and sustainable plant-based foods. Npj Science of Food, 5(1).


Progress 01/01/21 to 12/31/21

Outputs
Target Audience:The major target audience for this research is for academic, industrial and government scientists in the food industry, especially of those interested in the formulation of next-generation plant-based food products. Changes/Problems:The main challanges we have faced during the project are listed below: (1) Due to COVID restrictions in the laboratory, there was some delay in carrying out some experiments, however, appreciable progress has still been made. Time was spent carrying out literature reviews. (2) A major problem has been identified in obtaining high quality plant proteins with the appropriate functional performance. There are huge variations in functionality depending on protein source and processing. This is a major bottleneck in the industry that needs to be overcome What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has involved training a Ph.D. student, 3 undergraduate students, and a Post Doc on the fundamental science behind the formulation and testing of next-generation plant-based food products. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?The research has been disseminated through publications in scientific journals, as well as in presentations at scientific conferences, symposia, and workshops. It has also been disseminated through Radio and TV interviews. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?We intend to identify optimum combinations of plant-based proteins and polysaccharides to formulate plant based adipose, muscle and connective tissues, as well as to optimize the processing conditions required to create plant-based foods.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? We have already made appreciable progress in a number of the above objectives. We have studied the impact of controlled heating and phase separation on the properties of various types of plant-based proteins and polysaccharides, including Rubisco, pea, soy, and potato proteins, as well as pectin and methyl cellulose polysaccharides. Plant-based materials with different physicochemical properties (hardness, brittles, color, opacity, and water holding properties) could be produced using different types and concentrations of these biopolymers. We have also shown that transglutaminase (a food-grade enzyme) can be used to crosslink proteins and increase the gel strength, making more meat like structures. We have also made considerable progress in the formation of plant-based adipose tissue that mimics the appearance and texture of real (beef) adipose tissue. A variety of analytical tools have been used to characterize the properties of the materials produced, including colorimetry, microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), uniaxial compression testing, and light scattering. We have also characterized the properties of real meat products to determine the physicochemical and quality attributes that we need to match.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: McClements, D. J., & Grossmann, L. (2021a). A brief review of the science behind the design of healthy and sustainable plant-based foods. Npj Science of Food, 5(1).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: "McClements, D. J., & Grossmann, L. (2021b). The science of plant-based foods: Constructing next-generation meat, fish, milk, and egg analogs. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 20(4), 4049-4100.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: "Tan, Y. B., & McClements, D. J. (2021). Plant-Based Colloidal Delivery Systems for Bioactives. Molecules, 26(22).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2021 Citation: "Zhou, H. L., Hu, Y. Y., Tan, Y. B., Zhang, Z. Y., & McClements, D. J. (2021). Digestibility and gastrointestinal fate of meat versus plant-based meat analogs: An in vitro comparison. Food Chemistry, 364.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2021 Citation: " Zhou, H. L., Zheng, B. J., Zhang, Z. Y., Zhang, R. J., He, L. L., & McClements, D. J. (2021). Fortification of Plant-Based Milk with Calcium May Reduce Vitamin D Bioaccessibility: An In Vitro Digestion Study. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 69(14), 4223-4233.