Progress 09/01/22 to 08/31/23
Outputs Target Audience:Target audiences of this project included carrot and carrot seed growers, carrot seed contractors, professional crop consultants, agri-chemical company representatives, vegetable seed company representatives, University Extension educators and faculty, and the public. Changes/Problems:Covid travel restrictions and inflation have increased costs and difficulty in conduction field campaigns. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?One M.S. student (Thesis Title: Epidemiology of Bacterial Blight in Carrot Seed Production Systems,), one undergraduate, and one Branch Experiment Station undergraduate intern were trained in plant pathology and seed pathology .The project has also provided training opportunities to two postdoctoral scholars and one summer intern from Bakersfield College. One PhD student, four undergraduates, and one high school student worked on various aspects of data collection/analyses or equipment design. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?A total of 3 conference presentations and one symposium presentation were made to scientists and stakeholders. Two additional presentations were made for industry stakeholders (January and July 2023). The cyclonic sampler is being utilized to examine airborne pathogen movement in tomato production and occurrence of DMI tolerant Aspergillus spp. in compost production and other crops. The "Cost of Carrot Seed Production Worksheets/Analysis" were made available to stakeholders via the Pacific Northwest Vegetable Association Website. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?1. We will complete the chemical synthesis of the most active antibiotic compound and its diastereomers and test their anti-Xhc activity, identify active compounds from isolates 16-135, 16-304, and 16-357, and test active compounds against Xhc infections in carrot plants. 2. We will conduct phenotypic screening of ~50 strains of Xhc for tolerance to a range of copper concentrations (0 to ~400 ppm, in 50 ppm increments) to compare with genotypic data on the presence/absence of various copper tolerance genes detected in a diversity of Xhc strains from three clades in a phylogenetic tree built using whole genome sequences derived from Objective 4. Strains of Xanthomonas perforans with known sensitivity and tolerance to copper were obtained from Jeff Jones, phytobacteriologist at the University of Florida, to serve as control strains in the phenotypic screening. 3. We will conduct a field trial to further evaluate novel and existing chemical and biological control options for Xhc. 4. We will conduct a particle release experiment to further test and characterize all sampling devices and understand plume dynamics by deploying a large scale sampling array to tract fluorescent particles placed in the debris stream of the harvester. 5. Activities conducted in the next reporting period will lead to improved understanding of the potential dollar value impact of alternative management strategies on the carrot seed industry.
Impacts What was accomplished under these goals?
The production of active compounds against Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae (Xhc) in bacterial isolates 17-044 and 17-049 has been inconsistent. However, after an extensive medium optimization study, we found that NB and KB media supplemented with 0.5% L-proline and L-leucine gave the optimal production of the active compounds, particularly in isolate 17-049. We have scaled up the culture and produced active extracts ready for in planta testing, which will be done by the Dung lab at Oregon State University and the du Toit lab at Washington State University. We have also started working on the chemical synthesis of the most active compound and its diastereomers and will evaluate their activity against Xhc. We have screened 14 new isolates received from the Dung lab for their activity against Xhc. Each isolate was cultured in three different media. The best results were observed in isolate 16-135 (cultivated in modified 2XYT medium), 16-304 (cultivated in KB medium), and isolate 16-357 (cultivated in KYPG medium). Currently, we are in the process of isolating and identifying the active compounds from these isolates. Given the history of very poor efficacy of copper-based spray programs for control of Xhc in carrot seed crops in the Pacific Northwest, combined with evidence from an onion SCRI project of the presence of copper tolerance genes in the strains of multiple bacterial pathogens of onion in the Columbia Basin of Washington State, the genomes of >300 Xanthomonas strains associated with carrot were screened by the Chang lab at Oregon State University for the presence, absence, and allelic diversity of the following copper tolerance genes: copR, copS, smmD, cusB, copB, copC, copD, copG, copK, copM, copL, cusA, copA, copF. Only 4 of these genes were detected in the >350 genomes. A subset of 49 of these strains from each of 3 phylogenetic clades (determined using whole genome sequences produced in Objective 4) with various permutations of the presence or absence of these four copper tolerance genes was selected to test phenotypically for tolerance to copper. The strains will be tested in fall 2023 on agar media amended with a range of concentration of copper sulfate, from 0 to 400 ppm, in 50 ppm increments. A field trial was conducted at the Kern County Extension Research Station in Shafter, CA to evaluate the efficacy of various bactericide products. In the trial, nine bactericide and biological plant activators were tested for efficacy against Xhc. Pathogen population levels in the foliage at different sampling points following bactericide applications was assessed. Our team implemented a refined design of a 3D printable cascade particle settling trap (CST) that separates airborne particulates into size classes. Using these tools, we designed and executed another field experiment using CSTs to test the hypothesis that airborne Xhc concentration is a function of both distance from particle generating source and particle size. This experiment was carried out independently during three combining events. We also deployed a 10-meter and a 5M micro-meteorological tower and 4 smaller micro-meteorological stations to evaluate the surface fluxes and atmospheric transport characteristics during harvesting events. A system of laser-based optical particle counters was used to evaluate how particle concentration changes as a function of height and time during tractor-based field events. We performed preliminary analysis on these data to plot the spatiotemporal evolution of dust concentration during the combining events and refine experimental design for the 2023 field campaign. Finally, we developed a mobile 3D printed cyclonic sampling sampling device for capture particles over a carrot crop and tested its suitability for use as a scouting method to monitor disease presence and development during the production season To improve understanding of the cost of Xhc to seed companies, buyers, and growers and to evaluate the impact of sanitation practices on seed quality we collected and analyzed germination data before and after hot water treatment from 65 seed lots spanning a 5-year timeframe. A forecasting model to predict germination rates after hot water treatment was developed. Results indicated that variety had a significant impact on germination rates after hot water treatment. One variety stood out as having a very favorable response to hot water treatment while on average, all other varieties exhibited a 3.5 % lower germination rate after treatment as compared to the highest performing variety. Stressful growing conditions have been found to impact germination rates after hot water treatment, but analysis from our sample suggested that the unique and unusual heat and haze experienced by carrot seed producers in the western US in 2021 and 2022 did not have a significant impact on germination rates after hot water treatment. Treatment batch size was also not found to have a significant impact on seed germination rates. Ultimately, seed quality before treatment had a positive significant impact on germination rates after treatment. The economic impact of reductions in germination rate are dependent on buyer. In some cases, the decrease in germination rates after treatment can lead to rejection of the entire seed lot, in other cases the price may be discounted. An important implicit cost of hot water treatments was identified within the seed germination analysis. The amount of time required to treat and test seed lots can create significant time lags between delivery of the crop and receipt of payment; a financial stress that could be partially alleviated by improved in field treatments to reduced dependency on hot water treatments.
Publications
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Awaiting Publication
Year Published:
2023
Citation:
Baldino. K., Huckins, M., Chang, E., Pardyjak, E., Stoll, R., Mahaffee, W., and Dung, J.K.S. 2023. Still gathering dust: Monitoring airborne Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae during carrot seed harvesting events in Central Oregon. American Phytopathological Society Plant Health 2023. Meeting. August 12-16, 2023. Denver, CO.
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Awaiting Publication
Year Published:
2023
Citation:
Hobson, E., Bernal, E., Dung, J.K.S., du Toit, L.J., and Jacobs, J.M. 2023. Examining the influence of carrot cultivar resistance on host colonization by Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae. American Phytopathological Society Plant Health 2023. Meeting. August 12-16, 2023. Denver, CO.
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Awaiting Publication
Year Published:
2023
Citation:
Scott, J.C., Sullens, K.L., Pardo, S.M., and Dung, J.K.S.. 2023. Leaf spot disease of Nepeta cataria caused by a distinct pathovar of Xanthomonas hortorum. American Phytopathological Society Pacific Division Meeting. March 14-16, 2023. Tucson, AZ.
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2023
Citation:
An Update on SCRI-Funded Bacterial Blight Research. Invited speaker. 2023 Carrot Research Symposium. February 14, 2023. Remote/virtual (~50 attendees)
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Progress 09/01/21 to 08/31/22
Outputs Target Audience:Target audiences of this project included carrot and carrot seed growers, carrot seed contractors, professional crop consultants, agri-chemical company representatives, vegetable seed company representatives, University Extension educators and faculty, and the public. Changes/Problems:COVID-19 travel restrictions have increased costs and difficulty in conducting field campaigns. Costs of laboratory supplies and consumables have also increased significantly. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?1. One summer intern from Fresno State University trained on bactericide applications, sampling, and data collection in the trial. One M.S. student and one undergraduate student were trained in plant pathology, bacteriology, and epidemiology. The project has provided training opportunities to two postdoctoral scholars in biochemistry and pharmacology. 2. One PhD student, four undergraduates, and one high school student worked on various aspects of data collection/analyses or equipment design. 3. A graduate student and postdoctoral researcher were trained as part of this year's project work. 4. One postdoctoral researcher and one undergraduate worked on genomic epidemiology. 5. None to report. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?A total of nine conference presentations, one technical report, two popular press articles, and one peer-reviewed manuscript were published. One workshop was also held. Outreach was conducted at the International Carrot Conference, the Columbia Basin Vegetable Seed Association annual meeting. Audiences for these presentations and publications include(d) seed company representatives, scientists, students, agri-chemical company representatives, and farmers/producers. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?1. We will investigate the impacts of infected/infested carrot seed, stecklings, and carrot seed crop debris on the development of bacterial blight epidemics and evaluate cultural, chemical, and IPM practices to mitigate these sources of inoculum. We will continue to screen bactericide products for bacterial blight control. We will also determine the MIC of the active compounds against Xhc, conduct in planta assay of the active compounds against Xhc, explore the possibility of improving the production of active compounds through genetic engineering, and investigate anti-Xhc compound(s) from another isolate, 16-317. 2. The designed sampler is being utilized to examine airborne pathogen movement in tomato production. We will conduct another field campaign during harvest attempting to capture up to 8 harvest plumes from each of 3 sperate fields. 3. We will make steps towards defining seed colonization by Xhc with electron microscopy. 4. We are approximately 75% done writing this work up. Our goal is to have a manuscript submitted before the end of 2022. 5. Within the next reporting period preliminary field data will be evaluated and the estimation of economic impacts to seed companies and buyers will be completed.
Impacts What was accomplished under these goals?
1. Potential interactions between foliar applications of ManKocide (mancozeb + copper hydroxide) with foliar applications of each of three fungicides commonly used in carrot and carrot seed production were evaluated in replicated greenhouse trials conducted in Mount Vernon, WA. The hypothesis was that foliar-applied fungicides reduce the epiphytic population of fungi on carrot leaves, which might increase the risk of colonization of carrot foliage by X. hortorum pv. carotae (Xhc), thereby minimizing the efficacy of ManKocide for control of bacterial blight. Plants treated with fungicides and then inoculated with Xhc had numerically greater, but not significantly greater, Xhc levels than inoculated plants that had not been treated with fungicides. Tank-mix application of ManKocide with the fungicides Quilt, Rally, or Rovral did not alter the efficacy of ManKocide against Xhc. The trial was repeated in Madras, OR. Results from both greenhouse trials suggest that foliar applications of fungicides to control diseases like powdery mildew and Alternaria leaf blight in carrot seed crops do not affect the efficacy of ManKocide against Xhc. However, ManKocide has limited efficacy and only when used preventatively, as there is no curative efficacy. A field trial was conducted in Shafter, CA to evaluate the efficacy of nine bactericide and biological plant activators for efficacy against the pathogen, Xhc. Pathogen population level in the foliage at different sampling points following bactericide applications was assessed. Compared to the non-treated control, Xhc populations were slightly lower on carrot foliage in all other treatments. Although some treatments such as Kocide and Nordox performed slightly better than others, Xhc populations increased across all treatments (>105 CFU/g dry leaf tissue) in the second sampling. The pathogen levels decreased relatively in the third and final sampling. In the final sampling, treatment Cueva had the lowest pathogen population (1.47×102) followed by Nordox (9.52×103), and Kocide (2.46×104). These levels are lower than the levels of colonization (>106CFU/g of leaf tissue) necessary for the development of symptoms in the field. Significant differences in the Area Under Colonization Progress Curve (AUCPC) were observed with treatments Kocide, LifeGard, Cueva, and Nordox compared to the non-treated control. We have isolated a pure active compound (AP1) from bacterial isolate 17-044 and characterized its chemical structure. We have also isolated two active compounds (AP2 and AP3) from isolate 17-049 and characterized their chemical structures. All of these compounds were active against Xhc, with AP1 and AP2 were significantly more active than AP3 in an agar diffusion assay. We attempted to improve the production of the active compounds by optimizing the culture condition, however, this approach was not successful. In collaboration with Objective 4, we obtained the genome sequences of isolates 17-044 and 17-049. We are exploring the possibility of using a genetic approach to improve the production of the active compounds. These compounds have strong growth inhibitory activity against Xhc in vitro and have great potential to be developed as crop protectants against Xhc infections in carrots. 2. We prototyped, tested, and implemented a 3D printable cascade particle settling trap (CST) that separates airborne particulates generated during tractor-based field events into size classes using stainless-steel woven fabric that is suitable for downstream processing for molecular and culturing assays. Field experiments using the CSTs were executed to test the hypothesis that airborne Xhc concentration is a function of both distance from particle generating source and particle size. This experiment was carried out independently during threshing, swathing, and combining events. We deployed a 10-meter micro-meteorological tower and 8 smaller micro-meteorological stations to evaluate the surface fluxes and atmospheric transport characteristics during harvesting events. Our team designed and configured a system of laser-based optical particle counters to evaluate how particle concentration changes as a function of height and time during tractor-based field events. We also performed preliminary analysis on these data to plot the spatiotemporal evolution of dust concentration during the combining events and refine experimental design for the 2022 field campaign. Our group developed a sampling method that allowed for capturing large volumes of particles discharged from harvest equipment that is suitable for downstream pathogenesis and viability assessments. Findings from these accomplishments demonstrate that the CSTs are suitable for monitoring spread on airborne particulates in carrot and other production systems. These traps are already being deployed to monitor movement of other airborne pathogens. The use of relatively inexpensive laser-based optical particle counters will enable more refined characterization of particle plumes of the finer particles that can move longer distances than larger particles. Results demonstrate that viable and pathogenic inoculum is present in all particles sizes and that long distance dispersion will need to be accounted for to prevent "green bridging" from one carrot-seed field to another due to the 18-month production cycle. 3. We collected confocal imaging data to describe the inner leaf colonization by Xhc. We determined that quantitative resistance significantly slowed down the infection progress compared to susceptible carrot varieties. This imaging also provided stronger evidence that stomata guard cells are the primary entry point for Xhc leaf colonization. 4. In the last report, we had completed the sequencing and analyses of 184 strains. As of this year, we have now sequenced and analyzed a total of 323 strains. Most are Xhc, though some are different species of Xanthomonas, and some were biocontrol strains. Newly sequenced strains were collected from more diverse locations, various tissues, various sources, including airborne particles, international seed production companies, and culture collections. For the latter, we sequenced time stamped historical strains. All genome sequences have been analyzed to infer genus-, species-, and genotype-level relationships, predict effector encoding genes, and presence of plasmids. Moreover, we have constructed time trees and mapped on important historical events in carrot/carrot seed agriculture. The key findings from our analyses are that: 1) there is very limited genetic diversity in Xhc associated with carrot seed production, 2) Xhc strains continue to be disseminated across the world, 3) Xhc has likely been associated with carrots throughout the history of carrot domestication and globalization, 4) the three main lineages of Xhc present in the Pacific Northwest were likely bottlenecked during establishment of the industry in this region, and 5) Xhc is endemic to carrot seed production in the Pacific Northwest and potentially beyond. Findings from this aim are important. They suggest that Xhc is continually dispersed with carrot seeds as regions are being established for carrot seed production. Secondly, use of control methods or development of new disinfection methods are necessary to reduce the continual movement of Xhc on carrot seeds. 5. Cost of production estimates for all major carrot growing regions were completed and updated to reflect current economic conditions allowing growers the ability to accurately assess the impacts of various management strategies in an environment characterized by high input price volatility. We began evaluation of the economic impacts of Xhc to seed companies and buyers by collecting data to estimate the costs of Xhc disinfection practices. The impact of Xhc on seed quality and marketability will also be estimated.
Publications
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
du Toit, L.J., and Dung, J. 2022. Bacterial blight in carrot seed crops. Columbia Basin Vegetable Seed Association Annual Meeting, 13 Jan. 2022, Moses Lake, WA. (~25 people)
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Sidhu, J., Dung, J., and Scott, J. 2022. Evaluation of bactericides for bacterial blight control in carrots. Poster presentation at the 40th International Carrot Conference, August 29-30, 2022 Mount Vernon, Washington, USA.
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Dung, J., and Scott, J. 2022. The effect of seedborne Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae on seed germination and seedborne transmission of bacterial blight in carrot. Oral presentation at the 40th International Carrot Conference, August 29-30, 2022 Mount Vernon, Washington, USA.
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Hobson, E., Bernal, E., du Toit, L.J., and Dung, J.K.S. 2022. Characterizing internal carrot leaf colonization patterns by Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae. Oral presentation at the 40th International Carrot Conference, August 29-30, 2022, Mount Vernon, Washington, USA.
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Baldino, K., Huckins, M., Scott, J., Stoll, R., Pardyjak, E., Mahaffee, W., and Dung, J. 2022. The places Xanthomonas will go: Examining Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae in airborne debris and on non-carrot crops in central Oregon. Oral presentation at the 40th International Carrot Conference, August 29-30, 2022 Mount Vernon, Washington, USA.
- Type:
Journal Articles
Status:
Published
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Mahaffee WF, Margairaz F, Ulmer LD, Bailey BN, Stoll R. Catching spores: Linking Epidemiology, Pathogen Biology, and Physics to Ground-Based Airborne Inoculum Monitoring. Plant Dis. 2022 Jun 9. doi: 10.1094/PDIS-11-21-2570-FE. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 35679849
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2021
Citation:
Huckins, M., Baldino, K., Dung, J., Mahaffee, W., Morrison, T., Pardyjak, E., and Stoll, R. 2021. New Approach for Capturing and Characterizing Large Aerosolized Particles in Agricultural Settings. GU Fall Meeting 2021, held in New Orleans, LA, 13-17. 2021AGUFM.A45C1866H. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021AGUFM.A45C1866H/abstract
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Baldino. K., Huckins, M., Pardyjak, E., Stoll, R., Mahaffee, W., and Dung, J.K.S. 2022. Gathering dust: Exploring the aerobiology of Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae in carrot seed crops of central Oregon. 2022 APS Plant Health Meeting, August 6-10, 2022, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Baldino. K., Scott, J.C., and Dung, J.K.S. 2022. Exploring the epiphytic colonization capability of Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae on non-carrot crops. 2022 APS Pacific Division Meeting (virtual).
- Type:
Other
Status:
Published
Year Published:
2021
Citation:
Dung, J., Scott, J., Williams, H., and Sagili, R. 2021. Can honeybees become contaminated by Xanthomonas hortorum pv. carotae, causal agent of bacterial blight of carrot? Central Oregon Agricultural Research and Extension Center 2021 Annual Report:24-28.
- Type:
Other
Status:
Published
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Dung, J., and Scott, J. 2022. Blowin' in the wind: Insights into bacterial blight epidemiology. Carrot Country Magazine (Fall):4-5.
- Type:
Other
Status:
Published
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Greenway, G. 2022. Estimating the economic impact of bacterial blight. Carrot Country Magazine (Fall):8-9.
- Type:
Conference Papers and Presentations
Status:
Other
Year Published:
2022
Citation:
Hobson, E. and Jacobs, J.M. 2022. Plants as Living Landscapes for Microbes: Examining the Role of Plant Immunity on the Bacterial Colonization of the Inner Leaf. Plant Health 2022. Portland OR USA (oral presentation)
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Progress 09/01/20 to 08/31/21
Outputs Target Audience:Target audiences of this project included carrot and carrot seed growers, carrot seed contractors, professional crop consultants, agri-chemical company representatives, vegetable seed company representatives, University Extension educators and faculty, and the public. Changes/Problems:
Nothing Reported
What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?1. Objective 1 of this project has provided training opportunities to a graduate (M.S.) student, a postdoctoral scholar, and a Fulbright visiting scholar. 2. One graduate (Ph.D.) student is currently funded by Objective 2 of this project and is being trained in particle modeling and aerobiology of plant pathogens. 3. One postdoc is currently funded by Objective 3 of this project and is being trained in Xhc inoculation and imaging of carrot. 4. Objective 4 has funded one postdoc trained in genomic epidemiology and one undergraduate trained in computational biology. 5. None to report. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?
Nothing Reported
What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?1. The next steps are to complete the structure elucidation of the active compound; obtain the genome sequences of the five variants of strain 17-044; improve the production of the active compound by further optimizing the culture condition; and conduct in planta assays of the active compound against Xhc. 2. The next steps are to conduct particle sampling and analysis when growers are threshing males (late July) and harvesting seed (late August). A series of sampling experiments will be run to collect particles during farm operations to determine particle size associated Xhc movement in the field and the distance particles move in the air mass. Further, refinements to current custom samplers and development of other novel particle sampling approaches will be explored. 3. For the next period, we will continue defining how these bacteria colonize leaf surfaces using microscopy techniques. We will perform a quantitative analysis of bacterial numbers and where they are located in and on leaf surfaces. Seed transmission is an important mechanism in Xhc dissemination. We will begin defining carrot seed colonization by Xhc. We will perform analysis using microscopy of contaminated seed and also develop methods for seed infection analysis from in house inoculation. 4. For the next period, we will continue to analyze whole genome sequences of Xhc to examine alternative explanations for transmission patterns. We will also mine the data for candidate virulence loci and plasmid sequences and determine variations in plasmids to generate hypotheses on the role that these mobile genetic elements have on disease of carrots. We also anticipate receiving more strains from other parts of the world and will analyze their genome sequences along with those reported herein. Last, we will mine genome sequences of putative biocontrol strains and work with members of the research team to identify loci predicted to be involved in the biosynthesis of natural products that could be used to control against Xhc on carrot plants and seeds. 5. Our current focus has been to estimate the grower level impacts of Xhc. Within the next reporting period we expect to evaluate impacts at the next link in the supply chain by developing a hedonic pricing model to estimate the value of quality attributes impacted by Xhc to seed buyers/exporters.
Impacts What was accomplished under these goals?
1. Growth chamber and greenhouse trials were conducted to evaluate foliar applications of phages effective against other Xanthomonas species for activity againstX. hortorum pv. carotae (Xhc). Foliar applications of phages did not reduce epiphytic populations of Xhc on carrot, but several adjuvants were identified that increased phage persistence on leaves 100-fold. Plaque assays showed that the phage mixture is not effective against all strains of Xhc. Field studies have identified several sources of potential reserviors in central Oregon seed production, including carrot crop debris, umbelliferous seed crops such as parsley and parsley root, and non-umbelliferous crops such as Kentucky bluegrass and roughstalk bluegrass. Studies are underway to further understand the survival of Xhc in carrot crop debris and potential epiphytic hosts other than carrot. Extracts from the culture broths of eight environmental isolates (bacterial strains) were screened for their antibacterial activity. The extracts were tested against five pathogenic bacteria including Xhc. Seven out of the eight bacterial isolates were able to produce antibacterial compounds under laboratory conditions. In particular, extracts from strain 17-044 showed high activity against the Gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Xhc. The active compound was isolated using bioassay-guided fractionation, followed by purification with HPLC. Elucidation of the chemical structure of the compound is currently on-going. Interestingly, while investigating the bacterium for the production of bioactive compounds, we found that cultures of strain 17-044 showed some phenotypic differences, two of which showed strong antibacterial activity towards Xhc. Antibacterial assay and HPLC analysis of the extracts showed that culture J2A is the most productive variant. Further studies of these variants including detailed analysis of their genetic makeup is being pursued. 2. An eddy covariance tower was setup in a carrot field near Madras, Oregon that consisted of four 3D sonic anemometers with a fine wire thermal couple and a HMP60 temperature and humidity sensor located at 10, 3, 2, and 1m above ground. An Irgason was located at 5m to measure carbon and vapor flux in addition to 3D momentum and temperature fluxes. The tower also had sensors for longwave, shortwave, and photosynthetically active radiation. All data was logged on a Campbell Scientific CR3000 datalogger. Airborne particle concentrations data (particles with diameters um was collected using five Alphasense optical particle counters each in custom housings collocated with the 3D sonics at 10, 5, 3, 2, and 1m. In addition, 6 LEMS (lowcost energy measurement stations) were deployed around the field perimeter to measure the spatial distribution of 2D wind speed and direction, temperature, and humidity. To collect data on the movement of larger particles (<1000 µm), a custom particle sampler was designed and built that can collect and bin particles into size classes of >800µm, 800-400, 400-250, 250-100, 100-50 and <50 µm. The samplers are readily constructed using 3D printing and off-the-shelf electronic components. Collected particles are captured on a matrix (nylon mesh) suitable to process for enumeration of Xhc through either culturing or DNA extraction. Xhc was detected in all particle sizes tested. 3. We gathered resistant and susceptible seed (germplasm) from industry partners and collaborators from this project and tested virulence of Xhc strain 14.007 from Oregon on multiple carrot varieties. We are comparing various genotypes to help inform our understanding of bacterial infection of leaves. There is variation of leaf colonization across genotypes, which could affect transmission and spread. An important aspect to the objectives is understanding the infection cycle by Xhc. We developed both artificial and naturalistic inoculation methods for carrot leaf infection by Xhc. We used blunt infiltration by a needleless syringe for artificial inoculation and rapid phenotyping. We used a spray inoculation method to allow bacteria to enter naturally through openings (e.g. hydathodes, stomata or wounds). We transformed Xhc 14.007 and 19.053 with pNEO-GFP and are beginning to define the specific tissues colonized by Xhc cells with confocal and scanning electron microscopy. 4. We gathered 184 strains of Xhc collected from diverse geographic locations and sources, including airborne debris, soils, seeds, and plants without disease symptoms. Their genomes were sequenced in two channels of an Illumina HiSeq3000 and analyzed along with 96 that we had sequenced previously. Those of the latter were collected from carrots showing disease symptoms and seeds primarily from one geographic location. Short reads were processed for quality and assembled into draft genome sequences, which have been annotated. We used average nucleotide identity, multi-locus sequence analysis maximum likelihood trees and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) differences to cluster strains into species-level groups and genotypes. Last, we constructed a minimum spanning network and projected geographic information to identify potential epidemiological links. There is a remarkably limited amount of diversity among Xhc analyzed. A total of 267 of the 280 strains grouped into a single species-level group. The remaining 13 strains are distributed throughout the Xanthomonas genus tree. Within the well-represented species-level group, there are a total of 158 genotypes, defined based on having ≤15 SNP differences relative to a common reference sequence, though most of these genotypes differ by no more than 400 SNP differences. Additional investigation of genome composition confirmed that strains within and between genotypes are very closely related and are essentially clonal or nearly clonal. Preliminary analysis of epidemiological patterns suggests that the Xhc population experienced a bottleneck in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) where much of the carrot seeds are produced. Moreover, we identified links between the PNW, other states, and foreign countries, indicative of possible transmission routes for Xhc. We also sequenced the genomes for eight strains identified as potential biocontrol bacteria. Preliminary analyses of their genome sequences confirmed their original taxonomic classifications based on analyses of 16S rRNA-encoding regions. 5. We surveyed growers and crop consultants to document current Xhc management practices in major growing regions and to evaluate perceptions of the impact of Xhc on carrot seed yield in recent production cycles. Preliminary results suggest that on average, the value of lost yield attributable to Xhc ranges between $8 and $11 million annually. Expenditure on the most widely used product for Xhc management is estimated to range between $500,000 and $600,000 annually; application costs are estimated to exceed $250,000 annually. This data highlights the significant role improved Xhc management practices could play in stabilizing some of the volatility and risk associated with carrot seed production. Improvements in the overall financial wellbeing of the carrot seed industry can create positive spillover effects in the rural communities that depend on the industry as an economic driver. Baseline cost, return, and breakeven estimates associated with current production practices under various types of irrigation in major carrot seed growing regions were developed. The downloadable cost of production workbooks allow for evaluation of the short- and long-term economic impacts associated with failure of seed to meet germination standards. Users can also evaluate the impacts of carrot seed management decisions on profitability. This tool will assist in improving stakeholder understanding of the costs and benefits of current and future treatment programs developed as this project progresses.
Publications
- Type:
Journal Articles
Status:
Published
Year Published:
2021
Citation:
Weisberg, A.J., Gr�nwald, N.J., Savory, E.A., Putnam, M.L. and Chang, J.H., 2021. Genomic Approaches to Plant-Pathogen Epidemiology and Diagnostics. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 59.
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