RESEARCH AND OUTREACH TO SUPPORT TRANSITIONING TO ORGANIC COTTON PRODUCTION IN CENTRAL AND GULF COAST TEXAS

• Sponsoring Institution: National Institute of Food and Agriculture
• Project Status: COMPLETE
• Funding Source: OTHER GRANTS
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 1020564
• Grant No.: 2019-51106-30192
• Cumulative Award Amt.: $499,731.00
• Proposal No.: 2019-03508
• Project Start Date: Sep 1, 2019
• Project End Date: Aug 31, 2023
• Grant Year: 2019
• Program Code: [112.E]- Organic Transitions

Recipient Organization
TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY
750 AGRONOMY RD STE 2701
COLLEGE STATION,TX 77843-0001

Performing Department
Soil & Crop Sciences

Non Technical Summary
Cotton is an important crop in the United States (US) and Texas is the leading producer of this commodity, planted on about 7.8 million acres in 2018 (NASS 2019), with a direct sales value of $2.7 billion and an economic impact of $24 billion annually inclusive of all products and services (OTA 2019). In addition to the fiber, cottonseed is an important component of the industry, which is often overlooked. In 2018, Texas produced about 2 million tons of cottonseed, with a sales value of $341 million (NASS 2019). Though the majority (~97%) of the current US organic cotton is produced in Texas, the acreage is still very low (approx. 14,000 acres, only 0.2% of all cotton acres in TX) and is mainly concentrated in the Texas High Plains. There is a high potential for expanding organic cotton production in the state, particularly in the Central and Gulf Coast Texas regions, but knowledge gaps exist for transitioning from conventional to organic cotton, including organic defoliation methods, conservation tillage, and cover crop systems for weed management, soil nutrient dynamics and greenhouse gas mitigation potential. The overarching goal of this project is to help bridge the knowledge gaps through interdisciplinary research and outreach.Research: Developing organically-approved defoliation methods can greatly benefit organic cotton growers. In this regard, some of the nonsynthetic natural product herbicides developed for use in other organic systems can be evaluated for their utility as a defoliant in cotton. OMRI ensures that the constituents of the products meet the requirements of the NOP guidelines, but it does not evaluate the efficacy of the products for their herbicidal properties. Different concentrations and combinations of plant essential oils and other natural products will be tested for their effectiveness as a defoliant for cotton.Weeds present the most important challenge for organic crop production, and economical weed management is touted as the prime constraint for transitioning to organic agriculture (Cavigelli et al. 2008; Posner et al. 2008; Liebman and Davis 2009). Removal of tillage from organic production systems warrants the development of robust non-chemical weed management tactics. Integration of cover crops can provide effective weed management, in addition to improving soil health and providing other ecosystem benefits (Teasdale 1996; Gallandt et al. 1999; Hartwig and Ammon 2002). Growers can take advantage of the extended growing season (Sep to Nov) in the Central and Gulf Coast regions and plant a short-duration cover crop after cotton harvest (typically harvested in the region by the end of Aug) to suppress post-harvest recruits of problematic summer-annual weeds such as Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri), waterhemp (A. tuberculatus), and ragweed parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus) through live biomass. Further, late fall-planted winter cover crops can facilitate in-season suppression of winter annual weeds through live biomass and suppression of summer annual weeds through cover crop residues.Agronomic practices in Central and Gulf Coast Texas are currently dominated by intensive tillage systems (i.e. conventional tillage). Many organic farmers rely on tillage and row cultivation for weed management (Teasdale and Mirsky 2015). This poses a great challenge to organic farming. There is unequivocal research evidence that tillage and repeated cultivations degrade soil quality (Wienhold and Halvorson 1998; Lal 2015). Long-term continuous cultivation also leads to soil erosion, increased emission of GHGs such as CO2, and reduced carbon sequestration, in addition to added labor and energy costs.In this research, we will evaluate various summer as well as winter cover crop species and compare conventional and conservation tillage systems. Observations will include soil moisture dynamics, weed suppression, soil fertility, greenhouse gas emissions, and crop biomass and yield.Outreach and educationDeveloping and delivering pertinent outreach activities is imperative to provide critical production information and best management practices to growers in a timely manner. Demonstration of the benefits of these best production practices on yield and economics will particularly entice other farmers considering on transitioning to organic production. To be effective, these demonstrations should be conducted in participating grower fields. This will allow the farmers to see for themselves the benefits of improved production practices, and the information will subsequently disseminate to other farmers through 'word of mouth'. Further, providing training and support on organic certification process will assist growers and offer a positive experience while transitioning to organic cotton production. There is a lack of educational material and outreach bulletins on organic cotton production. Developing robust educational material on different aspects of organic production will allow the growers develop a good understanding of the basics of organic production. Engagement of County Extension agents should be an important component of the outreach plan because they are the first point of contact for information by the growers. Additionally, training graduate and undergraduate students with organic production practices can provide long-term benefits since these students are the ones who will greatly influence the future of organic production, as farmers, rented operators, field agronomists, research scientists, extension personnel, policy makers, as well as progressive members of the general public. Our outreach and education plan will address these critical aspects.

Animal Health Component

70%

Research Effort Categories

Basic

25%

Applied

70%

Developmental

5%

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
102	0110	1070	33%
102	0430	1020	34%
213	1710	1140	33%

Knowledge Area
102 - Soil, Plant, Water, Nutrient Relationships; 213 - Weeds Affecting Plants;

Subject Of Investigation
0110 - Soil; 0430 - Climate; 1710 - Upland cotton;

Field Of Science
1070 - Ecology; 1140 - Weed science; 1020 - Physiology;

Keywords

cover crops

defoliants

greenhouse gas emission

tillage

weed control

Goals / Objectives
The long-term goal of the proposed project is the expansion of organic cotton production in Texas. Although organic cotton fetches a high price premium and is growing in demand, very few farmers were transitioning to these systems due to some key barriers. We believe that these barriers can be addressed through pertinent research and outreach activities, and providing direct support to growers interested in transitioning to organic cotton production. Further, we believe that transitioning to organic cotton requires research knowledge developed based on the interrelationships of basic biophysical processes, and the impact of economic and market forces. Such research must include both basic and applied aspects with full partnership and engagement of stakeholder groups, which is addressed in this study. The following project objectives were determined based on the assessments we made from interacting with the stakeholders.1. Conduct research and on-farm demonstrations on defoliation methods to fill a critical knowledge gap (that support insurance programs) for organic cotton production in Central and Gulf Coast Texas regions (Research Objective)2. Conduct additional agronomic research and on-farm demonstrations on the influence of cover cropping and conservation tillage practices on weed management, water-yield relations, soil nutrient dynamics and health, and greenhouse gas emissions, and develop best management practices that optimize economic returns and ecosystem services in organic cotton production (Research Objective)3. Develop and deliver an educational and outreach program for efficient transfer of project results to various stakeholders to facilitate transitioning to organic cotton production in Central and Gulf Coast Texas regions (Education and Outreach Objective)

Project Methods
1. Research locationsThe rigorous field data collection for the objectives 1 and 2 will be carried out in a transitioning organic site at the Texas A&M field research facility near College Station, TX. A field demonstration site will be established at the participating farmer (Zack Yanta)'s transitioning organic cotton field in Lavaca County, TX to disseminate the findings to broader stakeholder groups.2. Research Methodology and data collection 2.1. Objective 1Defoliant evaluation at College StationField experiments will be conducted in College Station, TX over a two-year period (summer 2019, 2020) to evaluate various nonsynthetic products that meet NOP standards for use as a cotton defoliant. This experiment will be conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Each plot will consist of 4 rows (3 m) x 6 m. A total of 16 different treatments will be evaluated: acetic acid (vinegar) at 20 and 30% concentrations, citric acid, neem oil, castor oil, clove oil, clove oil + citric acid, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, acetic acid 23% + citric acid 14% (Alldown®), citric acid 5% + garlic 0.2% (Alldown® Green), clove oil 45.6% (Matran® 2), d-limonene (Avenger®), thyme 10.4% + clove oil 10.1% (Xpress®), and ammonium nanoate (Axxe®). A non-sprayed control will also be maintained for comparison.2.2. Objective 2Conservation tillage and cover crop experiment at College StationA three-year (2019-2022) transitional organic experiment will be established at the Texas A&M field research facility near College Station, TX. The experiment will be arranged in a split-plot design with four replications. The main-plot factor is tillage system, with 2 levels: strip-tillage (a conservation tillage practice) and conventional tillage. The sub-plot factor is 10 levels: 4 fall-planted covers (cereal rye, haygrazer oats, Austrian winter peas, and a mix of all three species), with and without a late-summer planted cowpea double cover cropping. These cover crop choices are also ideal due to a lack of weediness potential. Additionally, a weedy fallow and a weed-free bareground check treatment will be included for comparison. Each sub-plot will be 12 rows (9 m) wide x 15 m long.Field Data collection(i) Weed population dynamics: We will estimate weed seedbank dynamics, seedling emergence pattern and weed control in each plot. Weed biomass will be estimated from six 0.5 m2 random quadrats within each plot at the end of the growing season.(ii) Soil moisture - impact of cover crops: Soil moisture measurements will be carried out at daily intervals using automatic moisture sensors (Stevens® GroPoint Profile) at three different depth profiles, 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, and 30-45 cm. Water use efficiency estimates will be derived using crop biomass and yield data.(iii) Crop growth and yield: The physiological and growth parameters for cotton and cover crops will be measured at mid-season and at crop maturity. Specifically, observations will be carried out on plant height, leaf area index (LAI), light interception (ACCUPAR LP-80 ceptometer), SPAD value (SPAD 502 Plus Chlorophyll Meter), biomass production, and yield.(iv) Soil physical properties: Soil physical properties such as bulk density, water infiltration rate, and aggregate stability are important indicators of soil health. Detailed measurements of soil physical properties will be taken following cotton harvest in the first year and third year of experiments.(v) Soil fertility: Soil samples for conventional nutrient testing (0-15 cm) and for residual NO3-N (0-15 cm, 15-45 cm) will be taken as composites for each plot and analyzed at the Texas A&M University Soil Testing Laboratory. Tissue testing for nutrients (N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, and micronutrients) will be performed midseason on each plot.(vi) Nutrient cycling: Soil nitrogen (N), carbon (C), and phosphorus (P) as totals will be measured for each plot prior to cotton planting. Crop and cover crop residue (as appropriate for the treatment) will be measured for total N, C, and P. Root density will be estimated as percent inoculated roots observed out of ten randomly selected root segments from each plot.(vii) GHG measurements: GHG measurements will be made at weekly intervals using static chambers. Dr. Rajan has static chambers available for use in this project. Gas samples will be drawn from the chamber headspace using gas-tight syringes at 0, 10, 20 and 30 minute intervals for flux calculation. Gas samples will be analyzed for CO2, N2O and CH4 concentrations using a gas chromatograph equipped with an electron capture detector. To assess all three GHGs together, N2O and CH4 emissions will be expressed in terms of CO2-carbon equivalents (for example, N2O is multiplied by 298 and CH4 is multiplied by 34).(viii) Indicators of soil biological activity and health:In this study, we will measure microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen. We will use the chloroform fumigation and extraction method for determining soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen (Vance et al. 1987). Chloroform fumigated and non-fumigated samples will be extracted using K2SO4 and samples will be analyzed for total organic carbon and total nitrogen at Dr. Rajan's laboratory using an Elementar vario MAX cube CN analyzer (Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH, Hanau, Germany). Additionally, soil respiration measurements will be made using static chambers and will be collected as part of the GHG measurements described above.Economic analysis The data from experimental and demonstration fields will be used to build enterprise budgets to understand the associated costs, revenues, and enterprise profits. This will serve as a representative model for farmers and allow them to estimate the net revenue in their farms associated with different improved management practices. The price volatility (historical/implied) will be used to analyze the economic risk. The field measurements will be used to conduct a scenario analysis with a hypothetical cap-and-trade mitigation policy.2.3. Objective 3Outreach and educational planGuided by the research findings, we will develop appropriate educational materials in Years 2 and 3, to meet the needs of Texas growers interested in transitioning to organic cotton production.i) Field days: Stakeholder field days will be conducted in June and October of project Years 2 and 3, utilizing the demonstration plots to be established at Mr. Yanta's transitioning organic cotton farm in Lavaca County. Participants will have an opportunity to witness the benefits of best management practices for organic cotton production. Further, this event will facilitate experience sharing among the stakeholders.ii) Training through Texas A&M AgriLife Extension: Dr. McGinty will organize training sessions and conduct pertinent outreach activities in the focus region during the Years 2 and 3 of the project. The proposed activities include, but not limited to:Develop Organic System Plan training modules, both Trainer and Grower versions, with topics including the certification process, plan development, crop establishment, weed management, soil and fertility management, insect pest/disease management, organic integrity, and harvest/handling; b) Provide training workshops for County Extension Agents (CEAs); c) Enable CEAs to provide OSP training to growers, with options for in-person and remote participation; d) Provide training workshops for growers; e) Organize field day events to demonstrate and discuss successful organic best management practices; f) Develop extension bulletins to disseminate research findings; and g) Routinely discuss with organic cotton producers about what practices have worked and what have not.All educational materials will be made available through the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension website (https://agrilifeextension.tamu.edu).

Progress 09/01/22 to 08/31/23

Outputs
(N/A)

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1: Conduct research on defoliation methods for organic cotton Field experiments were repeated in 2022 to test different non-synthetic herbicides for their effectiveness as cotton defoliants. Both leaf injury and leaf drop were evaluated at 7 and 14 days after application. The study provided vital information on the potential use of select non-synthetic products as defoliants. The manuscript is ready for submission to Weed Technology journal. Objective 2: Influence of cover cropping and conservation tillage practices on weed management, water-yield relations, soil nutrient dynamics and health, and greenhouse gas emissions The field experiments were concluded during the 2022 field season. An additional soil incubation study was conducted under laboratory conditions during 2022-23. The static chamber technique was used to monitor weekly emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Due to poor crop performance in strip-till plots, measurements were taken only on conventional tillage plots. Greenhouse gas sampling was carried out at weekly intervals until cotton harvest. Twelve ml pre-evacuated vials were used to collect gas samples at 00, 10, 20- and 30-minute intervals after closing the chamber to capture the gas flux. The samples were analyzed at Texas A&M AgriLife Center-Amarillo each week. Soil moisture and temperature were monitored at 30-minute intervals throughout the cotton growth period using CS655 sensors connected to CR-1000 dataloggers (Campbell Scientific). The greenhouse gas chambers and soil moisture sensors were reinstalled again after cover crop planting in the fall of 2021 and continued to monitor the emissions and soil moisture dynamics during the cover crop and cotton growing period of 2021-2022. Multiple soil incubation studies were conducted from 2020 to 2023 with soils collected from the organic field to assess the mineralization dynamics and associated greenhouse gas emissions of cover crop residues with poultry manure and biochar. The emissions varied by year, while cover crops showed promising results in reducing N2O emissions and helped conserve soil moisture. Objective 3: Education and outreach Outreach was conducted at 10county extension meetings during the summer of 2023, with a total attendance of about 400. These events reached producers in San Patricio, Nueces, Jim Wells, Kleberg, Jackson, Victoria, Calhoun, Fayette, and Colorado counties. Additionally, findings were presented at the Texas Plant Protection Association Meeting, which is widely attended by growers and crop consultants.

Publications

• Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Salehin M (2023) Impact of organic management practices on soil greenhouse gas emissions from cotton-winter cover crop systems in east-central Texas. PhD Dissertation, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2024 Citation: Salehin SMU, Rajan N, Casey KD, Mowrer JE, Somenahally A, Bagavathiannan M (2024). Greenhouse gas emissions during decomposition of cover crops and manure with simulated tillage in long-term soil incubations. Soil Science Society of America Journal (Manuscript under review).
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Other Year Published: 2024 Citation: Maity A, Hathcoat D, Bagavathiannan M (2024) Evaluation of organic herbicides as defoliants in cotton production. Weed Technology (under communication)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Poudyal, C., & Bagavathiannan, M. V. (2023) Estimation of Cover Crop Biomass Using UAV-Mounted Multispectral Sensors [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, St. Louis, MO.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Mowrer, J. E., Casey, K. D., Somenahally, A., & Bagavathiannan, M. V. (2023) Reducing Soil Greenhouse Gas Emissions with Biochar during Cover Crops and Manure Decomposition [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, St. Louis, MO.

Progress 09/01/19 to 08/31/23

Outputs
Target Audience:The key target audiences reached during this reporting period include organic farmers, conventional farmers, county extension agents, Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association (TOFGA), and Cotton Incorporated. Changes/Problems:The project was significantly impacted by COVID-19 related disruption of activities during 2020 and 2021. In 2022, a severe drought and extremely hot weather conditions in TX during the majority of the summer affected some of the field activities. However, we were able to simulate greenhouse gas emissions utilizing laboratory incubation experiments as well, which provided valuable insights into the influence of cover crop residue retention on the emission dynamics. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has provided training on field agronomy and organic weed management methods for an MS student, training on soil nutrient and microbial diversity analysis for another MS student, and training on greenhouse gas measurements and analysis for a PhD student. This project also provided opportunities for two undergraduate students for conducting short research projects. Additionally, seven undergraduate student workers were trained on various field and lab activities. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Results were communicated to the broader scientific community through presentations at various scientific meetings, including the ASA-CSSA-SSSA annual meeting, Southern American Society of Agronomy Meeting, Weed Science Society of America Annual Meeting, Beltwide Cotton Conference, and the Southern Weed Science Society Annual Meeting. Informal discussions were made with Cotton Incorporated and the Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Organization (TOFGA) on salient research findings. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1: Conduct research on defoliation methods for organic cotton Field experiments were repeated in 2022 to test different non-synthetic herbicides for their effectiveness as cotton defoliants. Both leaf injury and leaf drop were evaluated at 7 and 14 days after application. The study provided vital information on the potential use of select non-synthetic products as defoliants. The manuscript is ready for submission to Weed Technology journal. Objective 2: Influence of cover cropping and conservation tillage practices on weed management, water-yield relations, soil nutrient dynamics and health, and greenhouse gas emissions The field experiments were concluded during the 2022 field season. An additional soil incubation study was conducted under laboratory conditions during 2022-23. The static chamber technique was used to monitor weekly emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Due to poor crop performance in strip-till plots, measurements were taken only on conventional tillage plots. Greenhouse gas sampling was carried out at weekly intervals until cotton harvest. Twelve ml pre-evacuated vials were used to collect gas samples at 00, 10, 20- and 30-minute intervals after closing the chamber to capture the gas flux. The samples were analyzed at Texas A&M AgriLife Center-Amarillo each week. Soil moisture and temperature were monitored at 30-minute intervals throughout the cotton growth period using CS655 sensors connected to CR-1000 dataloggers (Campbell Scientific). The greenhouse gas chambers and soil moisture sensors were reinstalled again after cover crop planting in the fall of 2021 and continued to monitor the emissions and soil moisture dynamics during the cover crop and cotton growing period of 2021-2022. Multiple soil incubation studies were conducted from 2020 to 2023 with soils collected from the organic field to assess the mineralization dynamics and associated greenhouse gas emissions of cover crop residues with poultry manure and biochar. The emissions varied by year, while cover crops showed promising results in reducing N2O emissions and helped conserve soil moisture. Objective 3: Education and outreach Outreach was conducted at 10county extension meetings during the summer of 2023, with a total attendance of about 400. These events reached producers in San Patricio, Nueces, Jim Wells, Kleberg, Jackson, Victoria, Calhoun, Fayette, and Colorado counties. Additionally, findings were presented at the Texas Plant Protection Association Meeting, which is widely attended by growers and crop consultants.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2024 Citation: Salehin SMU, Rajan N, Casey KD, Mowrer JE, Somenahally A, Bagavathiannan M (2023). Greenhouse gas emissions during decomposition of cover crops and manure with simulated tillage in long-term soil incubations. Soil Science Society of America Journal (Manuscript under review).
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2024 Citation: Maity A, Hathcoat D, Bagavathiannan M (2023) Evaluation of organic herbicides as defoliants in cotton production. Weed Technology (under communication)
• Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Salehin M (2023) Impact of organic management practices on soil greenhouse gas emissions from cotton-winter cover crop systems in east-central Texas. PhD Dissertation, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University
• Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Barth M (2022) Evaluating reduced tillage, cover crops, and living mulches for weed management in cotton. MS Thesis, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Poudyal, C., & Bagavathiannan, M. V. (2023) Estimation of Cover Crop Biomass Using UAV-Mounted Multispectral Sensors [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, St. Louis, MO.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Evaluation of living mulch species and their effect on weed pressure in cotton. In: Proceedings of the 2021 American Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Murphree, P., Mowrer, J. E., Casey, K. D., & Bagavathiannan, M. V., 2021. Greenhouse Gas Emissions during Long-Term Incubation of Organically Managed Soils with Different Cover Crops. [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Miyanaka, N., Casey, K. D., Tomlinson, P. J., Somenahally, A., Mowrer, J. E., & Bagavathiannan, M. V., 2021. Emission and Sequestration of Greenhouse Gases in Organically Managed Cotton Cropping Systems [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Salehin, S.M.U., Rajan, N., Casey, K., Mowrer, J., and Bagavathiannan, M., 2021. Effects of Different Cover Crops and Tillage on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Soil Incubation. [Abstract]. In ASA Southern Regional Branch Annual Meeting, Virtual-2021. American Society of Agronomy.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth, M., Salehin, S. M. U., Mowrer, J. E., Rajan, N., & Bagavathiannan, M., 2021. An Agronomic Evaluation of Tillage and Cover Crops in Organic Cotton Production [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2023 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Mowrer, J. E., Casey, K. D., Somenahally, A., & Bagavathiannan, M. V. (2023) Reducing Soil Greenhouse Gas Emissions with Biochar during Cover Crops and Manure Decomposition [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, St. Louis, MO.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Salehin M, Mowrer J, Rajan N, Bagavathiannan M (2021) An agronomic evaluation of tillage and cover crops in organic cotton production. In: Proceedings of the 2021 American Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Murphee P, Mowrer J (2022) Tillage practice affects soil CO2 respiration more than cover crops the second year of organic cotton study. Soil Survey and Land Resource Workshop, College Station, TX
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Murphee P, Mowrer J (2022) Soil carbon and nitrogen mineralization are affected by tillage and cover cropping in an organic cotton system in Texas. American Society of Agronomy Southern Branch, New Orleans, LA.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Casey, K. D., Tomlinson, P. J., Miyanaka, N., Mowrer, J. E., & Bagavathiannan, M. V., 2022. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sequestration in Organic Cotton Systems with Different Cover Crops. [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Casey, K. D., Mowrer, J. E., Somenahally, A., & Bagavathiannan, M., 2022. Biochar Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions during Decomposition of Cover Crops and Manures: Results from Soil Incubation [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Barth, M., Rajan, N., Bagavathiannan, M., & Mowrer, J. E., 2022. Prospects and Challenges of Organic Cotton Production in East-Central Texas. [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Cover crops and tillage regime alter weed pressure in organic cotton production. In: Proceedings of the 2021 Southern Weed Science Society Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Impact of tillage regime and cover cropping on weed dynamics in organic cotton production. In: Proceedings of the 2021 Weed Science Society of America Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Us-Salehin M, Rajan N, Casey K, Mowrer J, Tomlinson P, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Greenhouse gas emissions, soil moisture and temperature dynamics with different cover crops in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of the 2021 Beltwide Cotton Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Us-Salehin M, Rajan N, Mowrer J, Casey K, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Greenhouse gas emissions with different tillage and cover crops in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of Southern American Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Us-Salehin M, Rajan N, Casey K, Mowrer J, Tomlinson P, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Effects of cover crops on greenhouse gas emissions, soil temperature, and soil moisture dynamics in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of the ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2020 Citation: Salehin, M.U., Rajan, N., Casey, K., Mowrer, J., Tomlinson, P., Bagavathiannan, M. 2020. Effects of cover crops on greenhouse gas emissions, soil temperature, and soil moisture dynamics in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of the ASA-CSSA-SSSA annual meeting.

Progress 09/01/21 to 08/31/22

Outputs
Target Audience:The key target audiences reached during this reporting period include organic farmers, conventional farmers, county extension agents, Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association (TOFGA), and Cotton Incorporated. Changes/Problems:The project was significantly impacted by COVID-19 related disruption of activities during the previous two years. In 2022, a severe drought and extremely hot weather conditions in TX during the majority of the summer has affected some of the field activities. However, we were able to evaluate greenhouse gas emissions utilizing laboratory incubation experiments as well, which provided valuable insights into the influence of cover crop residue retention on the emission dynamics. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has provided training on field agronomy and organic weed management methods for an MS student, training on soil nutrient and microbial diversity analysis for another MS student, and training on greenhouse gas measurements and analysis for a PhD student. This project also provided opportunities for two undergraduate students for conducting short research projects. Additionally, seven undergraduate student workers were trained on various field and lab activities. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Results were communicated to the broader scientific community through presentations at various scientific meetings, including the ASA-CSSA-SSSA annual meeting, Southern American Society of Agronomy Meeting, Weed Science Society of America Annual Meeting, Beltwide Cotton Conference, and the Southern Weed Science Society Annual Meeting. Informal discussions were made with Cotton Incorporated and the Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Organization (TOFGA) on salient research findings. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?We have obtained a no-cost extension FY2022-2023 to complete pending activities. A significant effort will be dedicated to data analysis and manuscript writing.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1: Conduct research on defoliation methods for organic cotton Field experiments were repeated in 2022 to test different non-synthetic herbicides for their effectiveness as cotton defoliants. Both leaf injury and leaf drop were evaluated at 7 and 14 days after application. The study provided vital information on potential use of select non-synthetic products as defoliants. Data analysis is complete and a journal manuscript is currently being developed. Objective 2: Influence of cover cropping and conservation tillage practices on weed management, water-yield relations, soil nutrient dynamics and health, and greenhouse gas emissions Cover crops were planted in late fall 2021, following the harvest of cotton. The treatments included oats, Austrian winter pea, purpletop turnip and a mix of all three covers. Cover crops were terminated using a roller crimper, and the cotton crop was planted following a conventional till or strip-till. Cotton was planted and maintained organically, and the trial was used for greenhouse gas measurements and soil nutrient dynamics assessments. Greenhouse gas measurements: Greenhouse gas measurements: The static chamber technique was used to monitor weekly emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Due to poor crop performance in strip-till plots, measurements were taken only on conventional tillage plots. Greenhouse gas sampling was carried out at weekly intervals until cotton harvest. Twelve ml pre-evacuated vials were used to collect gas samples at 00, 10, 20- and 30-minute intervals after closing the chamber to capture the gas flux. The samples were analyzed at Texas A&M AgriLife Center-Amarillo each week. Soil moisture and temperature were monitored at 30-minute intervals throughout the cotton growth period using CS655 sensors connected to CR-1000 dataloggers (Campbell Scientific). The greenhouse gas chambers and soil moisture sensors were reinstalled again after cover crop planting in the fall of 2021 and continued to monitor the emissions and soil moisture dynamics during the cover crop and cotton growing period of 2021-2022. A soil incubation study was done in 2022 with soils collected from the organic field to assess the mineralization dynamics and associated greenhouse gas emissions of cover crop residues with poultry manure and biochar. The emissions varied by year, while cover crops showed promising results in reducing N2O emissions and helped conserve soil moisture. Soil nutrient dynamics and microbial activity: Soil samples for fertility/plant available nutrients were collected in 2021-22. Samples were taken for the 0-15 cm and 15- 38 cm soil depths. Soil samples for controlled incubations were collected in spring 2022. These samples were used to assess microbial activity in the top 10-cm profile. Incubations were conducted to assess general heterotroph activity (as CO2 respiration), carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization as a function of the imposed treatments. Results show that up to 90% of the carbon added to the soil from cover crop biomass residue can be mineralized to CO2 within two months during the summer in Central Texas. Brassicas tend to exhibit narrow C:N ratios similar to legumes and, therefore, break down faster than grass/grain covers and can also lead to more N2O emissions than grass/grain covers. Data analysis is currently ongoing. Objective 3: Education and outreach Outreach was conducted at 11 county extension meetings during the summer of 2022, with a total attendance of 440. These events reached producers in San Patricio, Nueces, Jim Wells, Kleberg, Jackson, Victoria, Calhoun, Fayette, and Colorado counties. Additionally, findings were presented at the Texas Plant Protection Association Meeting which is widely attended by growers and crop consultants. The carbon mineralization data has been communicated at 5 farmer meetings on the subjects of soil carbon market and cover crop benefits. A factsheet was produced on organic methods for weed control in cotton production.

Publications

• Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Barth M (2022) Evaluating reduced tillage, cover crops, and living mulches for weed management in cotton. MS Thesis, Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Murphree, P., Mowrer, J. E., Casey, K. D., & Bagavathiannan, M. V., 2021. Greenhouse Gas Emissions during Long-Term Incubation of Organically Managed Soils with Different Cover Crops. [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Miyanaka, N., Casey, K. D., Tomlinson, P. J., Somenahally, A., Mowrer, J. E., & Bagavathiannan, M. V., 2021. Emission and Sequestration of Greenhouse Gases in Organically Managed Cotton Cropping Systems [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Salehin, S.M.U., Rajan, N., Casey, K., Mowrer, J., and Bagavathiannan, M., 2021. Effects of Different Cover Crops and Tillage on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Soil Incubation. [Abstract]. In ASA Southern Regional Branch Annual Meeting, Virtual-2021. American Society of Agronomy.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth, M., Salehin, S. M. U., Mowrer, J. E., Rajan, N., & Bagavathiannan, M., 2021. An Agronomic Evaluation of Tillage and Cover Crops in Organic Cotton Production [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Murphee P, Mowrer J (2022) Tillage practice affects soil CO2 respiration more than cover crops the second year of organic cotton study. Soil Survey and Land Resource Workshop, College Station, TX
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Murphee P, Mowrer J (2022) Soil carbon and nitrogen mineralization are affected by tillage and cover cropping in an organic cotton system in Texas. American Society of Agronomy Southern Branch, New Orleans, LA.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Salehin M, Mowrer J, Rajan N, Bagavathiannan M (2021) An agronomic evaluation of tillage and cover crops in organic cotton production. In: Proceedings of the 2021 American Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Evaluation of living mulch species and their effect on weed pressure in cotton. In: Proceedings of the 2021 American Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Casey, K. D., Tomlinson, P. J., Miyanaka, N., Mowrer, J. E., & Bagavathiannan, M. V., 2022. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sequestration in Organic Cotton Systems with Different Cover Crops. [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Rajan, N., Casey, K. D., Mowrer, J. E., Somenahally, A., & Bagavathiannan, M., 2022. Biochar Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions during Decomposition of Cover Crops and Manures: Results from Soil Incubation [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Salehin, S. M. U., Barth, M., Rajan, N., Bagavathiannan, M., & Mowrer, J. E., 2022. Prospects and Challenges of Organic Cotton Production in East-Central Texas. [Abstract]. ASA, CSSA, SSSA International Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD.

Progress 09/01/20 to 08/31/21

Outputs
Target Audience:The key target audiences reached during this reporting period include organic farmers, conventional farmers, county extension agents, Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association (TOFGA), and Cotton Incorporated. Changes/Problems:The project was significantly impacted by COVID-19 related disruption of activities. Further, continuous rain events for more than 6 weeks during early summer 2021 led to severe weed interference and complete crop failure. We were able to replant cotton, but was a late planting timing for the region, which pushed the harvest timing as well. Also, weed pressure was very severe in the strip-till plots and the organic methods of weed control we implemented were not sufficient in these plots due to larger than optimum weed sizes. This situation led to poor cotton growth and yield in the strip-till plots. Greenhouse gas emission measurements were not conducted in the strip-till plots due to severe weed growth and poor cotton performance. It is our opinion that inter-row cultivation is critical to ensure successful cotton production in the strip-till plots, until other effective and selective control methods are developed. The learnings from this year will be helpful for better addressing these challenges next year. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has provided training on field agronomy and organic weed management methods for an MS student, training on soil nutrient and microbial diversity analysis for another MS student, and training on greenhouse gas measurements and analysis for a PhD student. This project also provided opportunities for two undergraduate students for conducting short research projects. Additionally, four undergraduate student workers were trained on various field and lab activities. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Results were communicated to the broader scientific community through presentations at various scientific meetings, including the ASA-CSSA-SSSA annual meeting, Southern American Society of Agronomy Meeting, Weed Science Society of America Annual Meeting, Beltwide Cotton Conference, and the Southern Weed Science Society Annual Meeting. Informal discussions were made with Cotton Incorporated and the Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Organization (TOFGA) on salient research findings. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?We will continue to make progress on all project objectives, building on the learnings from this past year.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1: Conduct research on defoliation methods for organic cotton Field experiments were conducted in summer 2020 to test different non-synthetic herbicides for their effectiveness as cotton defoliants. Both leaf injury and leaf drop were evaluated at 7 and 14 days after application. The study provided vital information on potential use of select non-synthetic products as defoliants. The experiment will be repeated during summer 2021. Objective 2: Influence of cover cropping and conservation tillage practices on weed management, water-yield relations, soil nutrient dynamics and health, and greenhouse gas emissions Cover crops were planted in late fall 2020, following the harvest of cotton. The treatments included oats, Austrian winter pea, purpletop turnip and a mix of all three covers. Cover crops were terminated using a roller crimper and the cotton crop was planted following a conventional till or strip-till. Due to prolonged rains during early summer 2021, weed control attempts have failed and weeds grew out of control. As a result, we had to terminate the trial and replant cotton, which was a late planting timing for our location. Routine field observations and measurements were carried out as required. Weed-related measurements: Soil seedbank samples were collected prior to planting cotton (first planting) during early summer 2021. The seedbank size was estimated by the grow-out method in the greenhouse. Weed seedling emergence was counted throughout the season in permanent quadrats marked in each plot. Weed biomass was measured in each plot prior to cotton harvest. Greenhouse gas measurements: The static chamber technique was used to monitor weekly emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Due to poor crop performance in strip-till plots, measurements were taken only on conventional tillage plots. Greenhouse gas sampling was carried out at weekly intervals until cotton harvest. Twenty ml pre-evacuated vials were used to collect gas samples at 00, 10, 20- and 30-minute intervals after closing the chamber to capture the gas flux. The samples were analyzed at Texas A&M AgriLife Center-Amarillo each week. Soil moisture and temperature were monitored at 30-minute interval throughout the cotton growth period using CS655 sensors connected to CR-1000 dataloggers (Campbell Scientific). The greenhouse gas chambers and soil moisture sensors will be reinstalled again after cover crop planting in fall 2021 to monitor the emissions and moisture dynamics during the cover cropping period. Soil nutrient dynamics and microbial activity: Soil samples for fertility/plant available nutrients were collected twice since fall 2020. Samples were taken for the 0-15 cm and 15- 38 cm soil depths. Soil samples for controlled incubations were collected once, in spring 2021. These samples were used to assess microbial activity in the top 10 cm profile. Incubations are currently underway to assess general heterotroph activity (as CO2 respiration), carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization as a function of the imposed treatments. The results of the analyses from these samples will be correlated against cotton yield and tissue nutrient concentrations (plant uptake). Objective 3: Education and outreach Outreach was conducted at 9 county extension meetings in June, with a total attendance of 347. These events reached producers in San Patricio, Nueces, Jim Wells, Kleberg, Jackson, Victoria, Calhoun, Fayette, and Colorado counties. Additionally, findings were presented at the Texas Plant Protection Association Meeting which is widely attended by growers and crop consultants. More outreach activities are planned for next year.

Publications

• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Cover crops and tillage regime alter weed pressure in organic cotton production. In: Proceedings of the 2021 Southern Weed Science Society Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Barth M, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Impact of tillage regime and cover cropping on weed dynamics in organic cotton production. In: Proceedings of the 2021 Weed Science Society of America Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Us-Salehin M, Rajan N, Casey K, Mowrer J, Tomlinson P, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Greenhouse gas emissions, soil moisture and temperature dynamics with different cover crops in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of the 2021 Beltwide Cotton Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Us-Salehin M, Rajan N, Mowrer J, Casey K, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Greenhouse gas emissions with different tillage and cover crops in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of Southern American Society of Agronomy Annual Meeting (Virtual)
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Us-Salehin M, Rajan N, Casey K, Mowrer J, Tomlinson P, Bagavathiannan M (2021) Effects of cover crops on greenhouse gas emissions, soil temperature, and soil moisture dynamics in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of the ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting (Virtual)

Progress 09/01/19 to 08/31/20

Outputs
Target Audience:The key target audiences reached during this reporting period include organic farmers, conventional farmers, county extension agents, Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association (TOFGA), and Cotton Incorporated. Changes/Problems:The project was significantly impacted by COVID-19 related disruption of activities. Cotton planting was delayed in the spring which led to high weed issues. Also, weed pressure was very severe in the strip-till plots and the organic methods of weed control we implemented were not sufficient in these plots due to larger than optimum weed sizes. This situation led to poor cotton growth and yield in the strip-till plots. Greenhouse gas emission measurements were terminated in the strip-till plots by mid-summer due to severe weed interference. Based on our experience, we propose to make a modification to our strip-till treatment. Specifically, we would like to change it to a reduced tillage system that includes strip tillage prior to cotton planting, followed by an inter-row cultivation during early cotton growth period to control weeds. It is our opinion that the inter-row cultivation is critical to ensure successful cotton production in the strip-till plots, until other effective and selective control methods are developed. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The project has provided training on field agronomy and organic weed management methods for an MS student, training on soil nutrient and microbial diversity analysis for another MS student, and training on greenhouse gas measurements and analysis for a PhD student. This project also provided opportunities for two undergraduate students for conducting short research projects. Additionally, four undergraduate student workers were trained on various field and lab activities. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Results were communicated to the broader scientific community through presentations at the ASA-CSSA-SSSA annual meeting. Presentations are also planned for the upcoming Weed Science Society of America Annual Meeting. Informal discussions were made with Cotton Incorporated and the Texas Organic Farmers and Gardeners Organization (TOFGA) on salient research findings. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?We will continue to make progress on all project objectives, building on the momentum generated this past year.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Objective 1: Conduct research on defoliation methods for organic cotton Progress: A preliminary test was conducted during fall 2019 with different organic herbicides for their effectiveness in desiccating/defoliating organic cotton. Based on the preliminary results, a detailed experiment was designed and conducted during summer 2020. A total of 23 treatments were tested. Data are currently being organized and analyzed. The experiment will be repeated during summer 2021. Objective 2: Influence of cover cropping and conservation tillage practices on weed management, water-yield relations, soil nutrient dynamics and health, and greenhouse gas emissions Progress: The field study was established during fall 2019, with the planting of the cover crops. Cover crops were terminated using a roller crimper and the cotton crop was planted following a conventional till or strip-till. Routine field observations and measurements were carried out as required. Weed-related measurements: Soil seedbank samples were collected prior to planting cotton in spring and again after cotton harvest in fall. The seedbank size was estimated by the grow-out method in the greenhouse. Weed seedling emergence was counted throughout the season in permanent quadrats marked in each plot. Weed biomass was measured in each plot prior to cotton harvest. Greenhouse gas measurements: The static chamber technique was used to monitor weekly emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Due to very low stand count in strip-till plots, measurements were taken only on conventional tillage plots for all four reps. First gas sampling was done in July followed by one sampling each week until cotton harvest. Twenty ml pre-evacuated vials were used to collect the gas samples and at 00, 10, 20- and 30-minute intervals after closing the chamber to capture the gas flux. The samples were sent to Dr. Kenneth Casey in Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service at Amarillo for analyzing the samples in gas chromatographs each week. Soil moisture and temperature dynamics in 30-minute interval throughout the cotton period were also monitored using CS655 sensors connected to CR-1000 dataloggers from Campbell Scientific. The greenhouse gas chambers and soil moisture sensors will be reinstalled again after cover crop planting in fall 2020 to monitor the emissions and moisture dynamics during the cover cropping period. The measurements will be repeated in the 2021 field season. Soil nutrient dynamics and microbial activity: Soil samples for fertility/plant available nutrients have been taken twice since October 2019. Samples were taken for the 0-15 cm and 15- 38 cm soil depths. Soil samples for controlled incubations were taken once, in March 2020. These samples were taken to assess microbial activity in the top 10 cm profile. Incubations are currently underway to assess general heterotroph activity (as CO2 respiration), greenhouse gas emission, and carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus mineralization as a function of the imposed treatments. The results of the analyses from these samples will be correlated against cotton yield and tissue nutrient concentrations (plant uptake). Upcoming operations include the third round of soil fertility sampling and the second round of incubation sampling. Objective 3: Education and outreach Progress: A field demonstration was organized during spring 2020 where nearby farmers interested in transitioning to organic agriculture as well as farmers interested in cover cropping and conservation tillage practices participated. More outreach activities are planned for next year.

Publications

• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2020 Citation: Salehin, M.U., Rajan, N., Casey, K., Mowrer, J., Tomlinson, P., Bagavathiannan, M. 2020. Effects of cover crops on greenhouse gas emissions, soil temperature, and soil moisture dynamics in organic cotton. In: Proceedings of the ASA-CSSA-SSSA annual meeting.