Source: UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA submitted to NRP
THE ROLE OF IRON REDOX PROCESSES IN SOIL CARBON DYNAMICS
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
COMPLETE
Funding Source
HATCH
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
1009531
Grant No.
(N/A)
Cumulative Award Amt.
(N/A)
Proposal No.
(N/A)
Multistate No.
(N/A)
Project Start Date
May 19, 2016
Project End Date
Apr 30, 2021
Grant Year
(N/A)
Program Code
[(N/A)]- (N/A)
Recipient Organization
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
200 D.W. BROOKS DR
ATHENS,GA 30602-5016
Performing Department
Crop & Soil Sciences
Non Technical Summary
Summary: The global reservoir of carbon (C) stored in soils is three times that stored in either the atmosphere or terrestrial vegetation. The future C balance of our planet and our ability to produce food sustainably depends strongly on management of C in the form of soil organic matter (SOM). Research in the last decade has underscored that the resident abundance of SOM is governed by a dynamic interplay of biological, chemical, and physical mechanisms operating on a range of timescales. How this interplay of biogeochemical processes and soil environmental conditions determine the abundance of soil C and feedback to influence climate is largely unknown and is a priority knowledge gap for climate change researchers to address in the next ten years. Additionally, increasing SOM abundance in agricultural systems operating on highly-weathered soils will advance efficiency and sustainability. The overall goal of the proposed Hatch project is to investigate mechanisms responsible for C accumulation, decomposition and mobility in soils, particularly those in warm humid climates. A central mediator of belowground C retention is the chemical binding to mineral surfaces, especially high surface area iron (Fe) nano-minerals that are associated with some of the oldest C in terrestrial systems. Indeed recent work suggests 25% of the C in sedimentary environments is associated with Fe. However, Fe minerals also mediate substantial C decomposition by serving as an alternative electron acceptor for microbial respiration when oxygen is absent (anoxic conditions). In addition, colloidal C held in place by Fe mineral cements or by electrostatic forces can be mobilized when iron minerals are dissolved by microbial metabolism. So although Fe minerals are of paramount importance for retaining C in soils, they are also implicated in C decomposition and mobilization: the environmental conditions of the soil determine which process dominates at any given moment or soil microsite. The formation of the most reactive, nano FeIII minerals occurs during transitions between anoxic (oxygen free) to oxic (oxygenated) conditions--for instance, during soil wetting and drying--when soluble divalent Fe is oxidized and precipitated as trivalent solid phase Fe-oxides. Thus, on longer time scales the balance between C accumulation and loss is mediated not only by the current soil conditions in the soil, but also by dynamic shifts in soil conditions, especially shifts in soil oxygen status (redox). This is important because many terrestrial ecosystems--even upland environments--are dissected by temporally and spatially heterogeneous redox conditions. Consideration of dynamic soil conditions in future C cycle models becomes even more critical when a changing climate is mapped on top of the existing soil heterogeneity. This Hatch proposal approaches these knowledge gaps by bridging between reductionist laboratory experiments and field scale observations of emergent biogeochemical behaviors. It capitalizes on a unique assemblage of tools to describe the response of soil C to dynamic iron redox conditions. Addressing Fe-C linkages in redox dynamic soils is a critical step toward the development of fully coupled models capable of predicting terrestrial ecosystem response to climate change. The findings from the research will likely have transformative influence on earth and environmental science.
Animal Health Component
(N/A)
Research Effort Categories
Basic
100%
Applied
(N/A)
Developmental
(N/A)
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
10101102000100%
Knowledge Area
101 - Appraisal of Soil Resources;

Subject Of Investigation
0110 - Soil;

Field Of Science
2000 - Chemistry;
Goals / Objectives
Objectives: The overall objective of this program is to quantitatively understand the role of dynamic redox conditions on carbon accumulation, decomposition and mobility in soils. Specific objectives are to:(1) Relate characteristics of natural carbon-mineral associations to environmental conditions.(2) Elucidate the carbon cycle response to dynamic physiochemical conditions(3) Describe the mechanisms responsible for re-distributing carbon in the soil profile.
Project Methods
The approach to acheive theobjectives centers on iron (Fe) biogeochemistry because Fe is sensitive to changes in climate and land management and directly links biotic and abiotic processes across multiple ecosystem functions. Furthermore, Dr. Thompson situates research questions across both natural and agricultural systems and bridges between laboratory and field experiments. He deliberately links his projects across traditional disciplinary domains to foster a systems-level world-view with his trainees.

Progress 05/19/16 to 04/30/21

Outputs
Target Audience:The target audience for this work is the scientific community and researchers and land managers that make use of soils data. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Over the project period, we have trained nine PhD or MS students, 1 postdoc, and 6 undergraduate students, and 3 high school students in scientific methods related to soil chemistry, carbon persistence in soils, and iron redox chemistry. In all cases, trainees where encouraged to develop their own ideas and used their own creative inspiration to craft the project objectives to their interests and also to follow the scientific pathway, which often leads in different directions that initially anticipated. Of the nine students that have were trained in this project, four have obtained permanent faculty position at research intensive universities either in the US or abroad; three of the PhD students are in permanent professional (industry positions); the others are in non-permanent training positions (i.e., postdocs). All trainees presented their research at conferences and published their work in peer-reviewed literature. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?We have published scientific papers and presented many oral and poster presentations to disseminate these results to the scientific community, which was our target audience. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Our project targeted 3 objectives and we describe the accomplishments according to each of those objectives. Below I discuss those findings. Relate characteristics of natural carbon-mineral associations to environmental conditions. Under this objective our project has produced 9 publications (out of 21 related to the whole project) characterizing mineral associated organic matter (MAOM). In particular, we have made considerable progress in understanding iron-carbon associations. These accomplishments range from careful characterization of the Fe mineral composition in these MAOM assembledges (Sun et al 2018; Coward et al 2018; Whitaker et al 2021) as well as characterization of the availability or susceptibility of OM in MAOM to oxidation or decomposition (mineralization) (Huang et a. 2019; Chen et al 2020; Noor et al 2022) and further, theorectical exploration of the competing roles of Fe and Al in MAOM (Hall and Thompson, 2022). Across these studies, we find that the iron minerals in MAOM is generally very short-range-ordered (SRO) [often variously less-precisely termed poorly-crystalline, disordered, or reactive] and often does not resemble pure laboratory minerals or even those co-precipitated with metals. Indeed, the iron in MAOM is highly-disordered and while importantly still in clusters of inorganic iron atoms, has organic compounds distributed within its structure. The OM in these Fe-MAOM are not easily oxidized under oxic conditions (Noor and Thompson 2022), but can often be easily destroyed upon the emergence of anoxic conditions, which stimulate the reductive dissolution of the Fe(III) minerals to aquerous Fe(II) ions and resulting in a subsequent release of co-precipitated OM (Chen et al 2020). Exceptions to this may emerge in redox dynamic environments (as discussed below) if they promote the formation of more crystalline iron phases (Hall et al 2018), but this still remains poorly understood. The phenomena known as Fe(II)-promoted Fe atom exchange is not prevented by co-precipitation of OM (Zhou et al 2018), but this process does appear to alter the OM availability toward release and decomposition (Noor and Thompson 2022 and forth coming articles). Exceptions to this may emerge in redox dynamic environments if they promote the formation of more crystalline iron phases (Hall et al 2018)2. 2. Elucidate the carbon cycle response to dynamic physiochemical conditions Under this objective our project has produced 11 publications (out of 21 related to the whole project). Accomplishments in this area primarily focus on what happens to MAOM and in particular, iron based MAOM during changes in redox state. We explored this phenomena across three key fluctuation parameters (the frequency or periodicity of the fluctuations, the amplitude or more specifically the O2 content of the headspace above the soil, and the length of the respective oxic or anoxic cycle). Our work on the frequency parameter shows that, first simply fluctuating the redox conditions rapidly (within a week or less) results in higher rates of iron reduction (Ginn et al 2017; Barcellos et al 2018). This translates into more carbon mineralization a function of that more rapid iron reduction (Chem et al 2018) and also to the release of trace metals (King et al 2019), which might impact C in ways not yet quantified. The reason for these more rapid Fe reduction rates is in part because that we generate new Fe(III) minerals that can be more easily reduced (Ginn et al 2017; Barcellos et al 2018; Chen et al 2018) and also because we encourage the development of microbial communities that can rapidly respond to redox changes (Wilmoth et al 2018). When we evaluated the effects of different frequencies however, different frequencies appears to have little effect on Fe reduction rates (Ginn et al 2017) until we increased them (made them more rapid) beyond some threshold (Barcellos et al 2018) that is undoubtably soil and context dependent (unpublished data, some in Barcellos' dissertation). More recently, work we have currently in review suggests this is probably related to the ability of microbes to maintain Fe-reducing activity. Noting that the oxidation event was critical to generating reactive Fe(III) phases for Fe reduction (that relate to the amount of OM mineralized), we focused considerably on this process. Here, we find first that most of the Fe2+ oxidation in soils occurs on mineral surfaces and that this dramatically increases oxidation rates (Chen and Thompson 2018) and changes the resulting Fe(III) solid phases considerably (Chen et al 2018). In fact, Iron minerals themselves are the primary driver of higher Fe(II) oxidation rates in the soils (Chen and Thompson 2018, 2021) and this process translates into an important observation that Fe often serves more to mineralize OM than to protect it from decomposition (Barcellos et al 2018; Chen et al 2020). The field conditions that promote this Fe cycling and couple it to OM mineralization are strongly related to soil moisture and the active Fe reducers as we see in the field (Barcellos et al 2018). We have incorporated these findings into a theoretical modeling framework that can be used to predict the times of year and regions where Fe reduction is more likely to impact OM decomposition (Calabrese et al 2021). 3. Describe the mechanisms responsible for re-distributing carbon in the soil profile. Under this objective our project has produced 11 publications (out of 21 related to the whole project). Our accomplishments under this objective range of site-specific studies of C or iron distribution that impacts OM in the soil to large syntheses of public datasets (Cayton et al 2019; Lawrence et al 2020). The later approach has resulted in broad collaborations with the Powell-Center Working Group of Soil Organic Matter (Blankinship et al 2018), which transformed in the ISRAD (International Soil radiocarbon Database) working group (Lawrence et al 2020). These efforts have shown that prior understanding of soil carbon distribution as dominated by clay content is not accurate across most soil types (Rasmussen et al 2018) and instead SRO metals and Ca are more critical parameters in most soils. We further expanded this analysis to examine the role of density fractionations (or precisely in the soil the various degree of mineral association with OM) and found that this measurement can explain much of the differences in C abundance in soils (Heckman et al 2022). More site-specific accomplishments for this objective include illustrations that the type of OM matter added to the soil strongly impacts the rate (and amount) or OM ended up in MAOM, and instead of the expectation for harder to degrade material promoting MAOM accumulation, it is more labile OM that promotes MAOM generation (Cyle et al 2016), although we note that lignin content is still important in some circumstances (Huang et al 2019). Since Fe is an important factor controlling OM distribution we add a number of contributions focusing on drivers of Fe distribution and the relationship to OM (Coward et al 2017; Hodges et al 2018; Hodges et al 2019; Chen et al 2019; Kirsten et al 2021). As expected, both inherited and dynamic processes govern Fe distribution and in particular the formation and persistence of reactive Fe phases, such as SRO Fe, that strongly associate with OM.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Kirsten, M., Mikutta, R., Vogel, C., Thompson, A., Mueller, C. W., Kimaro, D. N., Bergsma, H. L. T., Feger, K.-H., and Kalbitz, K., 2021. Iron oxides and aluminous clays selectively control soil carbon storage and stability in the humid tropics. Scientific Reports 11, 5076.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Calabrese, S., Barcellos, D., Thompson, A., and Porporato, A. (2021) Optimal hydrologic regime for regenerating FeIII electron acceptors for iron reduction in upland soils. JGR-Biogeosci. 125, e2020JG005894
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Chen, C. and Thompson, A., 2021. The influence of native soil organic matter and minerals on ferrous iron oxidation. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 292, 254-270.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2020 Citation: Chen, C., Hall, S.J., Coward, E., and Thompson, A.. (2020) Iron-mediated organic matter decomposition can counteract protection. Nature Comm. 11, 2255.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2020 Citation: Zhao, Q., Dunham-Cheatham, S., Adhikari, D., Chen, C., Patel, A., Poulson, S. R., Obrist, D., Verburg, P. S. J., Wang, X., Roden, E. R., Thompson, A., and Yang, Y., 2020. Oxidation of soil organic carbon during an anoxic-oxic transition. Geoderma 377, 114584.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2020 Citation: Lawrence, C. R., Beem-Miller, J., Hoyt, A. M., Monroe, G., Sierra, C. A., Heckman, K., Blankinship, J. C., Crow, S. E., McNicol, G., Trumbore, S., Levine, P. A., Vinduskova, O., Todd-Brown, K., Rasmussen, C., Hicks Pries, C. E., Schadel, C., McFarlane, K. J., Doetterl, S., Hatte, C., He, Y., Treat, C., Harden, J. W., Torn, M. S., Estop-Aragones, E., Berhe, A. A., Kieluweit, M., Marin-Spiotta, E., Plante, A. F., Thomson, A., Schimel, J. P., and Wagai, R., 2020. An open-source database for the synthesis of soil radiocarbon data: International Soil Radiocarbon Database (ISRaD) version 1.0. DOI: 10.5194/essd-12-61-2020
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2019 Citation: Huang, W., Hammel, K., Hao, J., Thompson, A., Hall, S. (2019) Enrichment of lignin-derived carbon in mineral-associated soil organic matter. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 7522-7531.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2019 Citation: King, E., Thompson, A., & Pett-Ridge, J. (2019). Underlying lithology controls trace metal mobilization during redox fluctuations. Sci. Tot. Environ. 665, 1147-1157
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2019 Citation: Cayton, L., J. Beem-Miller, A.M. Hoyt, G. Monroe, C. Sierra, S. Stoner, &Thompson, A., et al. (2019) An open source database for the synthesis of soil radiocarbon data: ISRaD version 1.0. Earth System Science Data Discussions. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-2019-55
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2019 Citation: Hodges, C., Mallard, J., Barcellos, D., Markewitz, D., & Thompson A. (2019). Seasonal and spatial variation in the potential for iron reduction in soils of the Southeastern Piedmont of the US. Catena
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2019 Citation: Chen, C., Barcellos, D., Richter, D.R., Schroeder, P.A., & Thompso*, A. (2019) Redoximorphic Bt horizons of the Calhoun CZO soils exhibit depth-dependent iron-oxide crystallinity. J Soils Sediments 19, 785-797. DOI: 10.1007/s11368-018-2068-2
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Barcellos, D., OConnell, C., Silver, W., Meile, C., Thompson, A. (2018). Hot spots and hot moments of soil moisture explain fluctuations in iron and carbon cycling in a humid tropical forest soil Soil Systems 2(4), 59
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Wilmoth, J.L., Moran, M. A., & Thompson A. (2018) Transient pulses of O2 direct Fe crystallinity and Fe-reducer gene expression Within a Soil Microbiome. Microbiome 6, 189.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Machmuller, M., Ballantyne, F., Markewitz, D., Thompson, A., Wurzburger, N., Frankson, P., & Mohan, J. E. (2018). Temperature sensitivity of soil respiration in a low-latitude ecosystem varies by season and habitat but is unaffected by experimental warming. Biogeochem. 141, 63-73.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Zhou, Z., Latta D.E., Noor N., Thompson A., Borch T., Scherer M.M. (2018) Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation of organic matter-ferrihydrite coprecipitates: A closer look using Fe isotopes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52, 11142-11150.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Blankinship, J., Crow, S., Asefaw-Berhe, A., Druhan, J., Heckman, K., Keiluweit, M., . . . Thompson, A., Wieder, W. (2018). Improving understanding of soil organic matter dynamics by triangulating theories, measurements, and models. Biogeochem. 15, 4815-4832
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Hall, S., Asefaw-Berhe, A., & Thompson A. (2018). Order from disorder: Higher iron phase crystallinity correlates with slower carbon turnover and greater microbial contributions. Biogeochem. 140, 93-110.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Coward, E., Thompson, A., & Plante, A. (2018). Contrasting Fe speciation in two humid forest soils: Insight into organomineral complexation in redox-active environments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 238, 68-84.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Chen, C., Meile, C., Wilmoth, J. L., Barcellos, D., & Thompson*, A. (2018). Influence of pO2 on Iron Redox Cycling and Anaerobic Organic Carbon Mineralization in a Humid Tropical Forest Soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52, 7709-7719. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b01368
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Winkler, P., Kaiser, K., Thompson, A., Kalbitz, K., Fiedler, J., & Jahn, R. (2018). Contrasting evolution of iron phase composition in soils exposed to redox fluctuations Geochim Cosmochim Acta 235, 89-102.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Barcellos D., Cyle K. & Thompson A. (2018). Faster Redox Fluctuations Can Lead to Higher Iron Reduction Rates in Humid Forest Soils. Biogeochem. 137(3): 367-378
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Rasmussen, C., Heckman, K., Wieder, W., Keiluweit, M., Lawrence, C., Asefaw-Berhe, A., . . . Thompson A., Wagai, R. (2018). Beyond clay: towards an improved set of variables for predicting soil organic matter content. Biogeochem. 137(3): 297-306
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Hodges C., King E., Pett-Ridge J., Thompson A. (2018). Potential for Iron Reduction Increases with Rainfall in Montane Basaltic Soils of Hawaii. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 82(1): 176-185
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Sun, J., Mailloux, B. J., Chillrud, S. N., van Geen, A., Thompson A., & Bostick, B. C. (2018). Simultaneously quantifying ferrihydrite and goethite in natural sediments using the method of standard additions with X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Chem. Geol. 476: 248-259.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Huang, L. -M., Jia, X. -X., Zhang, G. -L., Thompson A., Huang, F., Shao, M. -A., & Chen, L. -M. (2018). Variations and controls of iron oxides and isotope compositions during paddy soil evolution over a millennial time scale. Chem. Geol. 476, 340-351.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Chen, C., & Thompson* A. 2018. Ferrous Iron Oxidation under Varying pO2 Levels: The Effect of Fe (III)/Al (III) Oxide Minerals and Organic Matter. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52(2): 597-606.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Coward, E. K., Thompson, A., & Plante, A. F. (2017). Iron-mediated mineralogical control of organic matter accumulation in tropical soils. Geoderma, 306: 206-216.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Ginn, B., Meile, C., Wilmoth, J., Tang, Y., Thompson A. (2017) Rapid iron reduction rates are stimulated by high-amplitude redox fluctuations in a tropical forest soil. Environ. Sci. Technol. DOI:10.1021/acs.est.6b05709
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Cyle, T. K., Hill, N., Young, K., Jenkins, T., Hancock, D., Schroeder, P. A., and Thompson*, A., (2016). Substrate Quality Influences Organic Matter Accumulation In The Soil Silt and Clay Fraction. Soil Biol. Biochem. 103: 138-148.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Hall, S.J. and Thompson, A. (2022). What do relationships between extractable metals and soil organic carbon concentrations mean?. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20343
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Heckman, K., Hicks Pries, C. E., Lawrence, C. R., Rasmussen, C., Crow, S. E., Hoyt, A. M., ... Thompson, A. & Wagai, R. (2022). Beyond bulk: Density fractions explain heterogeneity in global soil carbon abundance and persistence. Global change biology, 28(3), 1178-1196.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2022 Citation: Noor, N. and Thompson, A. Localized alteration of ferrihydrite natural organic matter coprecipitates following reaction with Fe(II) (2022) Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20366
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Gu, X., Kim, H., Hynek, S., Thompson, A., and Brantley, S. L., 2021. Subsurface particle transport shapes the deep critical zone in a granitoid watershed. Geochemical Perspectives Letters 19, 13-18.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2021 Citation: Whitaker, A., Austin, R.E., Holden, K.L., Jones, J.L., Michel, F.M., Peak, D., Thompson, A., Duckworth, O. 2021 The Structure of Poorly Ordered Biogenic Iron (oxyhydr)oxides Formed in Circumneutral pH Environments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 308, 237-255


Progress 10/01/19 to 09/30/20

Outputs
Target Audience: Nothing Reported Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Nothing Reported What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? See final report.

Publications


    Progress 10/01/18 to 09/30/19

    Outputs
    Target Audience: Nothing Reported Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Nothing Reported What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

    Impacts
    What was accomplished under these goals? See final report.

    Publications


      Progress 10/01/17 to 09/30/18

      Outputs
      Target Audience: Nothing Reported Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Nothing Reported What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

      Impacts
      What was accomplished under these goals? See final report.

      Publications


        Progress 10/01/16 to 09/30/17

        Outputs
        Target Audience: Nothing Reported Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Nothing Reported What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

        Impacts
        What was accomplished under these goals? See final report

        Publications


          Progress 05/19/16 to 09/30/16

          Outputs
          Target Audience: Nothing Reported Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Nothing Reported What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

          Impacts
          What was accomplished under these goals? See final report

          Publications