Source: LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY submitted to NRP
SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF SALT SUBSTITUTES AND REDUCED-SODIUM FOODS
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
COMPLETE
Funding Source
HATCH
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
1006697
Grant No.
(N/A)
Cumulative Award Amt.
(N/A)
Proposal No.
(N/A)
Multistate No.
(N/A)
Project Start Date
Oct 21, 2015
Project End Date
Oct 31, 2019
Grant Year
(N/A)
Program Code
[(N/A)]- (N/A)
Recipient Organization
LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY
202 HIMES HALL
BATON ROUGE,LA 70803-0100
Performing Department
School of Nutrition and Food Sciences
Non Technical Summary
Correlation exists between excessive sodium consumption and high blood pressure which leads to possible coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, heart and kidney failure. The average daily sodium intake of US consumers is more than 3,400 mg (equivalent to 8.5 g salt); this exceeds the existing maximum recommended intake level (2,300 mg/d sodium). Moreover, 65% of sodium originates from food bought at retail stores, and about 25% originates from restaurants. In the US, more than 800,000 people die yearly from heart disease, stroke and other vascular diseases, costing a sum of $273 billion in health care dollars. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reduce sodium in American diets. However, reducing sodium and salt (NaCl) is a challenge faced by the food industry. Potassium chloride is the most common salt substitute used in low- or reduced salt/sodium foods. However, potassium chloride has the disadvantage of introducing bitterness, metallic after taste and off-taste. Sodium reduction can also be achieved by modification of the food product structure, thereby, improving the perception of saltiness. One example of this principle is the use of emulsion systems. There is little understanding about the relationship between the characteristics of emulsion systems and the human perception of saltiness and bitterness. Food affects the way we feel, and emotions elicited by products may influence consumer attitudes, food choices, sensory acceptability and purchase decision. Emotion assessment is a very complex task, whose methodology has only recently been applied to food. There is, therefore, the need to develop and examine various approaches to modifying consumer taste preferences through the use of sensory emotion to help increase liking and consumer intake of salt substitutes and non-caloric sweeteners. The objectives of this proposed Hatch research are (1) to investigate the effects of different characteristics of emulsion systems on human perception of saltiness and bitterness, and to develop acceptable oil-in-water emulsion-based food products with reduced sodium content, (2) to evaluate the effect of salt substitute (KCl) and the bitterness blocker (glycine) on the quality of a white cheddar cheese, and (3) to study the interactions between sensory attributes, consumer emotions and satisfaction with foods containing salt substitutes and non-caloric sweeteners.
Animal Health Component
60%
Research Effort Categories
Basic
40%
Applied
60%
Developmental
(N/A)
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
5025010309050%
5027220309050%
Knowledge Area
502 - New and Improved Food Products;

Subject Of Investigation
7220 - Sensory evaluation/analysis methods (human senses); 5010 - Food;

Field Of Science
3090 - Sensory science (human senses);
Goals / Objectives
Phase 1. It is know that saltiness perception is affected by various factors such as physical state of salt (solid, liquid, aerosol, etc.), surface properties, particle size distribution, etc. The objectives of this phase are to investigate the effects of different characteristics of emulsion systems on human perception of saltiness and bitterness, and to develop acceptable oil-in-water emulsion-based food products with reduced sodium content. Specific objectives are:1.1. To determine the detection and recognition thresholds of salty and bitter substances in aqueous solutions and oil-in-water emulsions;1.2. To characterize sensory (bitterness and saltiness) intensities of different tastants (NaCl, caffeine, and KCl) in the emulsion system as influenced by the concentrations of tastants and emulsion characteristics such as the type of oil used and the homogenization process used to prepare the emulsion;1.3. To optimize sensory acceptability and preference of mayonnaise (an example of an oil-in-water emulsion food product) using reduced sodium formulations according to the results obtained in Objective 1.2.Phase 2. The general objective is to evaluate the effect of salt substitute (KCl) and the bitterness blocker (glycine) on the quality of a white cheddar cheese. Specific objectives are:2.1. To evaluate effects of KCl and glycine on sensory properties, acceptability and purchase intent of various formulations of white cheddar cheese (9 formulations from a mixture design plus a control);2.2. To evaluate effects of KCl and glycine on selected physicochemical characteristics of white cheddar cheeses including: volatiles content, fatty acids profile, color, water activity and Texture Profile Analysis over a period of 5-months ripening;2.3. To evaluate possible changes in starter culture growth and development over the 5-months ripening period as affected by the presence of KCl and glycine;2.4. To perform product optimization of reduced sodium white cheddar cheese based on sensory acceptance using Response Surface Methodology (RSM).Phase 3. The main objective of this phase is to study the interactions between sensory attributes, consumer emotions and satisfaction with foods containing salt substitutes and non-caloric sweeteners. Specific objectives are to:3.1. To develop an emotion lexicon specific to the salty taste, the modified salty taste (reduced sodium), the sweet taste and the modified sweet taste (artificial sweeteners);3.2. To evaluate emotions associated with regular sodium foods, foods with salt substitutes and foods with artificial sweeteners with varying acceptability;3.3. To study factors (demographics, packaging, labeling, color, etc.) affecting consumer emotions, acceptability and satisfaction of low sodium foods and foods containing artificial sweeteners and predict purchase intense based on consumer acceptance and emotions.
Project Methods
Phase 1.Determination of Detection and Recognition Thresholds of Salty and Bitter Substances in Aqueous Solutions and Oil-in-Water Emulsions Systems- Threshold determination of NaCl, caffeine, and KCl in aqueous solution and emulsion systems. The threshold determination will follow the ASTM E-679 2004 method. Two replicates (sessions) will be performed.- Data analysis.For individual threshold, the geometric mean will be used for detection and recognition thresholds. For the group threshold, the geometric mean will be obtained by the arithmetic average of summation of the logarithm with base 10 of the individual BETs, and the standard deviation log10 will provide a measure of the group's variation. The arithmetic average thresholds of two replicates will be reported. This method will be used for estimating recognition thresholds (saltiness and bitterness) as well as the detection threshold.Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the post-hoc Tukey's Studentized Range (HSD) test will be also performed to compare the mean threshold difference between different solutions and emulsion systems at a given stimulus and threshold test using SAS software® at α=0.05.Characterization of Saltiness and Bitterness Intensities of Different Taste Substances in the Emulsion System as Influenced by the Concentrations of Tastants and Emulsion Characteristics- Descriptive Analysis. A panel of 15 people will be selected to participate in a descriptive analysis using the Spectrum® method for measuring intensities of salty and bitter tastes in solutions and emulsion systems. A 15-cm line scale anchored at the ends with the terms "none" and "extreme" will be used. For reference samples, caffeine solutions will be used for bitter references and sodium chloride solutions will be used for salty references.- Design of the experiment and statistical analysis. A central composite experimental design will be used. The independent variables in this optimization will be the concentration of oil (X1) and the concentration of stabilizer (X2). This optimization will be performed at given concentration of the taste compound, type of oil, and the process used for homogenizing the emulsion. Canola or soybean oil (commonly used for cooking) and olive oil (considered a healthier oil) will be used in this study. ANOVA, MANOVA, PCA will be performed using SAS Software® (SAS 2003) at α=0.05.Optimization of Acceptability and Preference of a Mayonnaise Using Reduced Sodium Formulations- Mixture component experimental design and preparation of reduced sodium mayonnaise formulations. . The three-components constrained simplex lattice mixture design will be used. Concentration of NaCl (X1), concentration of KCl (X2), and concentration of stabilizer (X3) will be varied which will result in 10 formulations.- Consumer study of mayonnaise formulation.240 consumers will rate samples in terms of appearance, color, odor/aroma, smoothness, spreadability, taste, mouthfeel, and overall liking using a 9-point hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely, 5=neither dislike nor like, 9=like extremely). Consumers will determine overall acceptance and purchase intent of each formulation based on sensory acceptability using the binomial (yes/no) scale.- Statistical analysis. All data will be analyzed at α=0.05 using the SAS software® (SAS 2003). ANOVA, MANOVA, PCA, and DDA will be performed.Phase 2.Effect of Bitterness Blockers (Glycine and AMP) and Salt Substitutes (KCl) on the Quality of Low Sodium White Cheddar Cheese- Experimental design.A three component mixture design will be used, in which the amounts of NaCl (x1), KCl (x2) and Glycine (x3) will be varied within the following boundaries: NaCl (30% - 45%), KCl (45% - 65%) and Glycine (5% -10%), totalizing 2.3% of the product formulation before pressing.- Quality evaluation includes water activity, color, volatile compound extraction and quantification, texture profile analysis (TPA), starter culture enumeration, fatty acids profile.- Consumer study. 360 consumers will rate acceptability of overall appearance, odor/aroma, overall taste, saltiness, overall texture, softness, chewiness and overall liking of the 10 cheddar cheese treatments using a 9-point hedonic scale (1= dislike extremely, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 9= like extremely). This study also will evaluate bitterness and off-flavor detection, acceptance, purchase intent, and purchase intent after receiving information about the low-sodium characteristic of the cheese (low sodium) with a binomial (yes/no) scale.- Statistical Analysis. ANOVA, the post hoc Tukey Studentized ranged test, MANOVA, DDA, sensory optimization by response surface methodology (RSM) using the Design Expert Software ® 8.0 will be performed at α = 0.05.Phase 3.Development of an Emotion Lexicon for Foods Containing Salt Substitutes and Artificial Sweeteners- Mini-focus group interviews. Mini-focus groups will be used to identify emotion terms related to the use of salt and artificial sweeteners in foods. - Focus group interviews. To fine-tune the emotions list, two focus groups will be conducted to determine the appropriate selection of terms. The emotion terms generated by the mini-focus groups and words from the EsSense® Profile (King and Meiselman 2010) will be combined into one list and presented to participants in both focus groups.- Terminology refinement. Central-location-tests will be conducted involving consumers (N=50) to refine the lexicon further while looking at or tasting salty product samples. Commercial food products will be presented for emotional assessment and the effect of product brand, package and labels will be investigated. Check-all-that-apply (CATA) method will be used to record the selected relevant terms. A CATA questionnaire containing the emotion terms fine-tuned by the focus group sessions will be given to each consumer for evaluation of saltiness. Once the data is compiled, the usage frequency for each emotion will be summed up and terms with frequency of 10 or lower will be eliminated, except for terms belonging to the EsSense Profile (King and Meiselman 2010).Measuring Consumer Emotions and Satisfaction with Foods Containing Salt Substitutes and Artificial Sweeteners- Consumers will evaluate changes in intensity of emotions experienced by consumers due to sodium chloride reduction in 3 different product categories (dairy, snacks and sauces) and sugar substitutes in 2 different product categories (drinks and baked foods). For the dairy products segment for example, regular cheddar cheese, low sodium (≤140mg) and very low sodium cheese (≤140 mg) will be used. For snacks, regular potato chips, low sodium and very low sodium chips will be used. Regular soda and sugar free sodas would also be evaluated. Consumers (N=400) will rate each emotion term on the ballot based on the intensity of the emotion it elicits when eating the product. Changes in emotion will be linked to liking and purchase intent. Artificial sweeteners will be evaluated in a similar manner. Consumer emotion data will be analyzed with one-way ANOVA and the post hoc Tukey Studentized ranged test (α = 0.05).Factors Influencing Consumer Emotions and Satisfaction with Foods Containing Salt Substitutes and Artificial Sweeteners- Central-location-tests will be conducted involving consumers (N=400) to evaluate commercial food products for emotional assessment. Check-all-that-apply (CATA) method will be used to record the applicable terms. Effect of brand and labels will be investigated for various commercial products during terminology refinement. Artificial sweeteners will be evaluated in a similar manner. Effects of different food types of varying quality on emotions and consumer satisfaction will be appraised both within and across product categories (e.g., low salt category).

Progress 10/21/15 to 10/31/19

Outputs
Target Audience:Target audiences include academics (faculty, research associates, and undergraduate and graduate students), food industry, and government agencies/units who are interested in learning about the interactions between sensory attributes, consumer emotions and satisfaction with foods, otherfactorsmay also affect consumer expectation, product acceptance, emotion and purchase decision of reduced-sodium foods from the sensoryscience (human perception) point of view. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This Hatch project provided opportunities for international students from various countries to receive hands on research experience. Although they came as interns to perform research as part of their thesis or dissertation, they were involved in this Hatch project to some extent. The research-based knowledge and experience were in the area of product development, sensory sciences, consumer research and statistical analysis. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?For the period covering this Hatch project, the project director and his collaborators havepublished a total of 17 refereed articlesand 1 magazine article of the Institute of Food Science & Technology, UK. They have presented numerous posters to share their findings at professional scientific meetings, mainly, at the Annual Meeting of the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT). What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? In the United States, about one-third of consumers have high blood pressure which likely leads to heart disease and stroke, which are the leading cause of death regardless of gender or age. High sodium consumption is related to high blood pressure thus increasing the risk of heart disease and strokes. It is estimated that 75% of the sodium is consumed through restaurants and processed foods, promoting overconsumption of sodium. Reducing sodium consumption to recommended amountcould help annually prevent 2.5 million deaths worldwide. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reduce sodium in American diets. However, reducing sodium and salt is a challenge faced by the food industry as it may negatively affect sensory quality, human emotion, product acceptance, and purchase intent. For this Hatch project , the objectives were (1) to investigate the effects of different characteristics of emulsion systems on human perception of saltiness and bitterness, and to develop acceptable oil-in-water emulsion-based food products with reduced sodium content, (2) to evaluate the effect of salt substitute (KCl) and the bitterness blocker (glycine) on the quality of a white cheddar cheese, and (3) to study the interactions between sensory attributes, consumer emotions and satisfaction with foods containing salt substitutes and non-caloric sweeteners. Based on the above-mentioned objectives, the major findings were (1) modification of food structure, in this case, emulsion, by manipulating a droplet size and oil concentration, affected saltiness perception. Increasing oil concentration at a given NaCl concentration increased salty taste perception; (2) an optimal formulation of a salt mixture (30% NaCl, 60% KCl and 10% Glycine) was identified for the low-sodium white cheddar cheese which was acceptable to consumers; (3) sucrose reduction by 50% using stevia as a sugar substitute did not significantly decrease consumer acceptability (color, odor, taste, sweetness, moistness, softness, stickiness, overall liking), positive emotions (calm, good, happy, healthy, pleasant, pleased, satisfied) and purchase intent. Overall, this Hatch project successfully demonstrated some approaches to reducing sodium and sugar in foods without compromising consumer acceptance.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Carabante, K. M. and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Data Analyses of A Multiple-Samples Sensory Ranking Test and its Duplicated Test: an Invited Review. Journal of Sensory Studies. An invited review. Volume 33, Issue 4, August 2018 e12435. DOI:10.1111/joss.12435.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Carabante, K. M. and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Serving Duplicates in a Single Session Can Selectively Improve Sensitivity of Duplicated Intensity Ranking Tests. Journal of Food Science. 83(7):1933-1940.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Poonnakasem, N., Laohasongkram, K., Chaiwanichsiri, S. and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Changes in Physicochemical Properties and Starch Crystallinity of Sponge Cake Containing HPMC and Extra Virgin Coconut Oil during Room Temperature Storage. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. Volume 42, Issue 5, May 2018 e 13600 DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.13600.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Torrico, D. D., Jirangrat, W., Wang, J., Chompreeda, P., Sriwattana, S., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Novel Modelling Approaches to Characterize and Quantify Carryover Effects on Sensory Acceptability. Foods 2018, 7(11), 186; doi:10.3390/foods7110186.


Progress 10/01/17 to 09/30/18

Outputs
Target Audience:Target audiences include academics (faculty, research associates, and undergraduate and graduate students), food industry, and government agencies/units who are interested in learning about the interactions between sensory attributes, consumer emotions andsatisfaction with foods, andhow various factors, including gluten-free ingredient, sugar reduction, sodium reduction, color visual cues, labeling, etc., may affect consumer expectation, product acceptance, emotion and purchase decision from the sensory science (human perception) point of view. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project provides opportunities for graduate students, visiting scientists, and collaborators at LSU AgCenter and Foreign Universities to jointly conduct research to study the interactions between sensory attributes, consumer emotions and satisfaction with foods containing gluten-free ingredientsand non-caloric sweeteners, and to determine factorsaffecting consumer emotions, acceptability and satisfaction of foods and to predict purchase intense based onconsumer acceptance and emotions. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Results have been disseminated through referred publications and presentations at scientific meetings and in classroom settings. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?In 2018, the following studies will be conducted and manuscripts will be prepared for submission. 1. Novel Modelling Approaches to Characterize and Quantify Carryover Effects on Sensory Acceptability. 2.Effects of Mushroom-Type, Seasoning and Health Benefit Information on Consumer Liking, Salty Taste Expectation, Emotions, and Purchase Intent of Extruded Snacks. 3.Development of Thai Emotion Lexicon for Coffee Drinking Using Word Association and Check-All-That-Apply Methods. 4.Sensory Characteristics of Low-Sodium Peanuts Containing NaCl, KCl and Glycine.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? From the reporting period, the below accomplishments were based on the major goals in Phase 3 listed above. 1. Gluten-free muffins: effects of sugar reduction and health benefit information on consumer liking, emotion, and purchase intent An increasing demand of gluten-free (GF) products is caused by a growing number of diagnosed celiacs and a consumption trend to eliminate allergenic proteins from diet. Availability of reduced-sugar gluten-free (GF) muffins remains commercially limited. In this study, selected physical properties, consumer perception and effects of health benefit information (HBI) were investigated for three GF muffins made with different amounts of sucrose (0%, 50%, 100%), with a commercial sweetener (Stevia) used as a sucrose replacement. Sucrose reduction by 50%, unlike 100% with Stevia, did not significantly decrease consumer acceptability (color, odor, taste, sweetness, moistness, softness, stickiness, overall liking), positive emotions (calm, good, happy, healthy, pleasant, pleased, satisfied) and purchase intent (PI) before HBI was displayed. HBI had a positive effect on overall liking, PI, and intensities of calm, good, happy, healthy and pleased emotions for both 50 and/or 100% sucrose reduction. The emotions happy and wellness became significant predictors of PI after HBI was provided. Overall, consumer acceptability and emotional responses of the GF muffin with 50% sucrose reduction were comparable to those with 100% sucrose. 2. Effects of colorant concentration and "natural color" or "sodium content" claim on saltiness perception, consumer liking and emotion, and purchase intent of dipping sauces Natural colorant (no colorant, NC = 0%; moderate colorant, MC = 1.2%; high colorant, HC = 3.6% w/w) and salt (regular salt, RS = NaCl; reduced-sodium, ReS = KCl; no salt, NS) were added in mayonnaise-based dipping sauces to evaluate effects of colorant concentration and "natural colorant" or sodium content" claim on saltiness expectation, consumer liking and emotion, and purchase intent (PI) of these products. Regardless of the salt type and content, increasing colorant concentration decreased color liking scores while saltiness expectation tentatively increased as indicated by higher % of "too much" responses for saltiness on a JAR (Just-About-Right) scale. At a given salt type and content, liking scores of salty taste decreased with increasing colorant concentration, both before and after the "sodium content" claim was given to consumers. Emotion scores elicited by consuming dipping sauces were affected by colorant concentration. Positive emotions (good, interested, satisfied) decreased while negative emotions (guilty, unsafe, worried) increased with increasing colorant concentration. Statements of "natural colorant" and "sodium content" claim had minimal effects on elicited emotions and PI. 3. Consumer Acceptance, Emotional Response and Purchase Intent of Rib-Eye Steaks from Grass-Fed Steers, and Effects of Health Benefit Information on Consumer Perception Sensory acceptability, purchase intent (PI), consumer emotional profile and fatty acid profile of rib-eye steaks from four different biological types of grass-fed cattle (Angus, Brangus, Pineywoods, and Holstein) were evaluated. The effects of health benefit information (HBI) pertaining to grass-fed beef on the overall liking (OL), emotional profile and PI were also studied. Consumers rated steaks from the two nontraditional beef biological types (Pineywoods and Holstein) equally or higher than conventional biological types (Angus and Brangus) in several hedonic (9-point scale) categories. Mean OL scores were 6.1 for Pineywoods and 6.3 for Holstein steaks, versus 5.5 for Angus and 6.0 for Brangus. Hedonic attributes, especially OL and liking of beef flavor, accounted for most of the differences between treatments. After knowledge of HBI, OL of all treatments increased, particularly Angus with OL mean score significantly increasing from 5.5 to 6.2. Positive PI increased significantly for Angus (from 48 to 65.33%), Brangus (from 50.67 to 66.67%), and Holstein (from 61.33 to 76%) steaks. Angus steaks, which initially received the lowest beef flavor liking (5.1) showed the most improvement for OL after HBI. Likewise, emotional profiles were improved after HBI, particularly the "Interested" emotion with a 0.5 unit increased.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Wardy, W., Jack, A. R., Chonpracha, P., Alonso, J. R., King, J. M., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Gluten-Free Muffins: Effects of Sugar Reduction and Health Benefit Information on Consumer Liking, Emotion, and Purchase Intent. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 53(1):262-269.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Gao, Y., Janes, M. E., Chiya, B., Brennan, M. A., Brennan, C. S., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Gluten-Free Bakery and Pasta Products: Prevalence and Quality Improvement. An Invited Review. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 53(1):19-32
  • Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Sukkwai, S., Kijroongrojana, K., Chokumnoyporn, N., Sriwattana, S., Torrico, D. D., Pujols, K. D., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. The Salt on the Senses. Food Science and Technology (the quarterly magazine of the Institute of Food Science & Technology, UK). 32(2):26-29. June issue.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Carabante, K. M., Ardoin, R., Scaglia, G., Malekian, F., Khachaturyan, M., Janes, M. E., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Consumer Acceptance, Emotional Response and Purchase Intent of Rib-Eye Steaks from Grass-Fed Steers, and Effects of Health Benefit Information on Consumer Perception. Journal of Food Science. 83(10): 2560-2570.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Sukkwai, S., Kijroongrojana, K., Chonpracha, P., Pujols, K. D., Alonso-Marenco, J. R., Ardoin, R., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2018. Effects of Colorant Concentration and ⿿Natural Colour⿿ or ⿿Sodium Content⿿ Claim on Saltiness Perception, Consumer Liking and Emotion, and Purchase Intent of Dipping Sauces. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 53(5):1246-1254.


Progress 10/01/16 to 09/30/17

Outputs
Target Audience:Target audiences include academics (faculty, research associates, and undergraduate and graduate students), food industry, and government agencies/units who are interested in learninghow sodium reduction can be achieved in food products and how various factors, including salt substitution or sodium reduction, package visual cues, labeling, etc.,may affect consumer expectation, productacceptance, emotion and purchasedecision from the sensory science (human perception) point of view. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project provides opportunities for graduate students, visiting scientists, and collaborators at LSU AgCenter and Foreign Universities to jointly conduct research to determine if salty and bitter taste qualities could be altered by physical state of foods, particularly in this case, the oil-in-water emulsion, and to study factors(demographics, packaging, labeling, color, etc.) affecting consumer emotions, acceptability andsatisfaction of foods and to predict purchase intense based on consumeracceptance and emotions. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Four refereed publications and one poster diseminated the results. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?In 2017, the following studies will be conducted and manuscripts will be prepared and submitted. - Taste Perception and Purchase Intent of Oil-in-Water Spreads: Effects of Oil Types and Salt (NaCl or KCl) Concentrations. - Influences of a Natural Colourant on Colour and Salty Taste Perception, Liking, Emotion and Purchase Intent: a Case of Mayonnaise-based Dipping Sauces. - Gluten-Free Muffins: Effects of Sugar Reduction and Health Benefit Information on Consumer Liking, Emotion, and Purchase Intent.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? From the reporting period, the below accomplishments were based on the major goals in Phase 1 and Phase 3 listed above. Phase 1. 1. Increasing oil concentration affects consumer perception and physical properties of mayonnaise-type spreads containing KCl Reducing sodium intakes remains a global challenge for the food industry. Little is known about how oil concentrations (OC) affect consumer perception of saltiness and bitterness in emulsion products such as mayonnaise containing KCl. We evaluated consumer perception and physical properties of mayonnaise-type spreads at various oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations. 306 consumers evaluated saltiness, bitterness, overall taste liking (OTL) and purchase intent (PI). Viscosity, pH, water activity and consistency/texture were also measured. Oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations had significant effects on saltiness, viscosity, and pH. As OC increased, saltiness intensity slightly decreased for spreads. Increasing oil concentration increased viscosity. Generally, spreads containing KCl had higher bitterness and pH than spreads containing NaCl. All spreads containing KCl were penalized for being "too bitter". PI was affected by OTL for all spreads but OC was also a significant factor in the purchase decision of spreads containing NaCl. This study demonstrated that increasing OC affected consumer taste perception (saltiness and bitterness) and spread physical properties including pH and viscosity. Phase 3. 2. Different Oils and Health Benefit Statements Affect Physicochemical Properties, Consumer Liking, Emotion and Purchase Intent: a Case of Sponge Cake Effects of different oils on physicochemical properties, consumer liking, emotion and purchase intent of sponge cakes were evaluated. Three healthy oils (extra virgin coconut oil, EVCO; extra virgin olive oil, EVOO; rice bran oil, RBO) vs. butter (the control), were used at 20% (w/w, wheat flour basis) in sponge cake formulations. Five positive (calm, good, happy, pleased, satisfied) and 3 negative (guilty, unsafe, worried) emotion terms using an online (N=234) check-all-that-apply questionnaire, were used for consumer testing. Consumers (N=148) evaluated acceptability of 9 sensory attributes on a 9-point hedonic scale, 8 emotion responses on a 5-point rating scale, and purchase intent on a binomial scale. Overall liking, emotion and purchase intent were evaluated before vs. after health benefit statement of oils had been given to consumers. Overall liking and positive emotion (except calm) scores of sponge cake made with EVCO were higher than those made with EVOO and RBO. Specific volume, expansion ratio, and moisture content of control, EVCO and EVOO were not significantly different, but higher than RBO sponge cake. JAR results showed that sponge cake made with RBO had the least softness that was reflected by the highest hardness (6.61-9.69 vs. 12.76N). Oil (EVCO/EVOO/RBO) health benefit statement provided to consumer significantly increased overall liking, positive emotion and purchase intent scores while decreased negative emotion scores. Overall liking and pleased emotion were critical attributes influencing purchase intent (odds = 2.06-3.75), whereas calm and happy became not critical after health benefit statement had been given. 3. Influence of Package Visual Cues of Sweeteners on the Sensory-Emotional Profiles of Their Products Substantial evidence suggests influence of color, physical state, and other extrinsic features on consumer perception and acceptability of food products. In this study, 560 subjects evaluated liking and emotional responses associated with 5 sweeteners (sucralose, stevia, saccharin, aspartame, and sucrose) under two eliciting conditions: control (brand name only) and informed (brand name/packet image), to assess impact of the packet color. For a given condition, 5 identical tea samples each labeled with a sweetener type were rated for sweetness and overall liking (9-point) and emotions (5-point). Nonsignificant interactions between eliciting condition and sweetener type were found for liking attributes and emotions (except peaceful), indicating their independent effects. However, overall differences existed among sweetener types and eliciting conditions based on both hedonic and emotional responses, suggesting modulating effects of packet color on sweetener type in the sensory-emotion space. The sensory-emotion profile for sucrose was separate from that of nonnutritive sweeteners, with statistically significant Mahalanobis distances among sample centroids. Increases in positive emotion intensities contrasted with a decrease in negative emotion intensities were observed for some sweeteners moving from the control to informed condition. Sweetness liking was strongly correlated with the emotion satisfied (sucralose, saccharin) only in the control condition, whereas it was strongly correlated with the emotions pleased and satisfied (stevia), disgusted (aspartame), and satisfied (sucrose) only in the informed condition. Overall, results suggested that sensory liking and emotions during the consumption experience are related not entirely to the type of sweetener but also the color of the packet.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Carabante, K., M., Alonso, J. R., Chokumnoyporn, N., Sriwattana, S., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2016. Analysis of Duplicated Multiple-Samples Rank Data Using the Mack-Skillings Test. Journal of Food Science. 81(7):S1791-1799.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Poonnakasem, N., Pujols, K. D., Chaiwanichsiri, S., Laohasongkram, K., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2016. Different Oils and Health Benefit Statements Affect Physicochemical Properties, Consumer Liking, Emotion and Purchase Intent: a Case of Sponge Cake. Journal of Food Science. 81(1):S165-S173.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Torrico, D. D. and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2017. Increasing Oil Concentration Affects Consumer Perception and Physical Properties of Mayonnaise-Type Spreads Containing KCl. Journal of Food Science. 82(8):1924-1934.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Wardy, W., Chonpracha, P., Chokumnoyporn, N., Sriwattana, S., Prinyawiwatkul, W., and Jirangrat, W. 2017. Influence of Package Visual Cues of Sweeteners on the Sensory-Emotional Profiles of Their Products. Journal of Food Science. 82(2):500-508.


Progress 10/21/15 to 09/30/16

Outputs
Target Audience:Target audiences include academics (faculty, research associates, and undergraduate and graduate students), food industry, and government agencies/units who are interested in learning about sodium reduction,how sodium reductioncan be achieved in foodproducts, and how salt substitution or sodium reduction may affectconsumerexpectation, product acceptance, emotion and purchase decision from the sensory science (human perception) point of view. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project provides opportunities for graduate students, visiting scientists, and collaborators at LSU AgCenter and Foreign Universities to jointly conduct researchto determine if salty and bitter taste qualities could be altered by physical state of foods, particularly in this case, the oil-in-water emulsion. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Five journal articles and oneposter presentation. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?In 2016, the following studies will be conducted and manuscripts will be prepared and submitted. -To optimize sensory acceptability and preference of mayonnaise (an example of an oil-in-water emulsion food product) using reduced sodium formulations according to the results obtained in Objective 1.2. -To evaluate effects of KCl and glycine on sensory properties, acceptability and purchase intent of various formulations of white cheddar cheese (9 formulations from a mixture design plus a control). -To perform product optimization of reduced sodium white cheddar cheese based on sensory acceptance using Response Surface Methodology (RSM).

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? From the reporting period, the overall goal was to determine if salty and bitter taste qualities could be altered by physical state of foods, particularly in this case, the oil-in-water emulsion. The accomplishment is described below based on 3 phases of the study. 1. Oil-in-water emulsion exhibits bitterness-suppressing effects in a sensory threshold study. Little is known about how emulsion characteristics affect saltiness/bitterness perception. Sensory detection and recognition thresholds of NaCl, caffeine, and KCl in aqueous solution vs. oil-in-water emulsion systems were evaluated. For emulsions, NaCl, KCl or caffeine were dissolved in water + emulsifier and mixed with canola oil (20% by weight). Two emulsions were prepared: emulsion 1 (viscosity=257 cP) and emulsion 2 (viscosity=59 cP). The forced-choice ascending concentration series method of limits (ASTM E-679-04) was used to determine detection and/or recognition thresholds at 25°C. Group best estimate threshold (GBET) geometric means were expressed as g/100 mL. Comparing NaCl vs. KCl, there were no significant differences in detection GBET values for all systems (0.0197-0.0354). For saltiness recognition thresholds, KCl GBET values were higher compared to NaCl GBET (0.0822-0.1070 vs. 0.0471-0.0501). For NaCl and KCl, emulsion 1 and/or emulsion 2 did not significantly affect the saltiness recognition threshold compared to that of the aqueous solution. However, the bitterness recognition thresholds of caffeine and KCl in solution were significantly lower than in the emulsions (0.0242-0.0586 vs. 0.0754-0.1025). Gender generally had a marginal effect on threshold values. This study showed that, compared with the aqueous solutions, emulsions did not significantly affect the saltiness recognition threshold of NaCl and KCl, but exhibited bitterness-suppressing effects on KCl and/or caffeine. 2. Psychophysical effects of increasing oil concentrations on saltiness and bitterness perception of oil-in-water emulsions. Limited research has been done to investigate saltiness and bitterness perceptions of NaCl, KCl, and caffeine in emulsion systems. Saltiness and bitterness intensities of emulsions prepared with different concentrations of oil [0% (i.e., solution), 20, and 40%, canola oil] and different concentrations of three tastants [NaCl (0.5-1.0%), KCl (0.5-1.5%), and caffeine (0.05-0.15%)] were measured using the Spectrum™ descriptive method (N=16) and the Electronic-tongue (E-tongue). Linear regression and the Stevens' power law were used to model the taste intensities against the tastant concentrations. From the descriptive data, saltiness intensities in emulsions were higher than solutions, demonstrating a saltiness-enhancing effect imparted by oil. Bitterness intensities in emulsions were lower compared to those of solutions for caffeine, but they were similar for KCl. This demonstrated that oil suppressed bitterness for caffeine. E-tongue saltiness measurements were corresponding to those of the descriptive data; however, E-tongue bitterness intensities of KCl showed an opposite pattern. 3. Oil and tastant concentrations affect saltiness and bitterness perception of oil-in-water emulsions. Saltiness of NaCl and KCl and bitterness of KCl and caffeine were evaluated in emulsions prepared with varying oil (20/40/60%) and tastant [NaCl (0.50/0.75/1.00%), KCl (0.50/1.00/1.50%) or caffeine (0.05/0.10/0.15%)] concentrations. A panel (N=16) evaluated saltiness and bitterness intensities of emulsions using the modified short-version SpectrumTM descriptive analysis. Viscosity and pH of emulsions were measured. The type of tastant (NaCl/KCl/caffeine) and its concentration had significant effects on saltiness and/or bitterness intensities. At a given tastant concentration, NaCl had higher saltiness intensity compared to KCl in emulsions. Increasing oil concentration increased saltiness of both NaCl and KCl, while it slightly increased bitterness of KCl but did not significantly affect bitterness of caffeine in emulsions. RSM plots indicated that saltiness enhancement of NaCl and KCl imparted by oil was more pronounced between 20 and 40% oil. Viscosity was the discriminating property among emulsions and possibly contributed to changes in salty and bitter perception.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Torrico, D. D., Sae-Eaw, A., Sriwattana, S., Boeneke, C., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2015. Oil-in-Water Emulsion Exhibits Bitterness-Suppressing Effects in a Sensory Threshold Study. Journal of Food Science. 80(6):S1404-1411.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Torrico, D. D. and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2015. Psychophysical Effects of Increasing Oil Concentrations on Saltiness and Bitterness Perception of Oil-in-Water Emulsions. Journal of Food Science. 80(8):S1885-S1892.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Torrico, D. D., Carabante, K. M., Pujols, K. D., Chareonthaikij, P., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2015. Oil and Tastant Concentrations Affect Saltiness and Bitterness Perception of Oil-in-Water Emulsions. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 50(12):25622571.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Chokumnoyporn, N., Sriwattana, S., Phimolsiripol, Y., Torrico, D. D., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2015. Soy Sauce Odour Induces and Enhances Saltiness Perception: A Sensory Threshold Study. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 50(10):2215-2221.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Chokumnoyporn, N., Sriwattana, S., and Prinyawiwatkul, W. 2016. Saltiness Enhancement of Oil Roasted Peanuts Induced by Foam-Mat Salt and Soy Sauce Odour. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 51(4): 978-985.