Improvement and Maintenance of Peanuts, Peanut Products and Related Peanut Product Flavor, Shelf Life, Functional Characteristics

Goals / Objectives
1. Improve peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources. 1A. Investigation of peanut composition using targeted and non-targeted analyses to identify compounds and metabolomic pathways of formation related to peanut flavor formation. 1B. Evaluate the flavor and quality characteristics of specific peanut varieties or breeding lines in cooperation with U.S. peanut breeders. 2. Identify commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/roasted peanuts and characterize their functional food attributes. [NP306, C1 PS1B] 2A. Evaluate peanut skins as an antimicrobial ingredient in livestock feed. 2B. Determination of the effectiveness of extracts from peanut skins as a natural antioxidant in preventing the onset of rancidity in peanut butter. 3. Enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and/or by-products as a livestock (poultry, swine, and aquaculture) feed ingredient.

Project Methods
The United States peanut industry generates approximately $4.4 billion annually in economic activity. With a value of over one billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks twelfth among USA food crops, grown on approximately 7,500 farms with 1.4 billion acres producing over five billion pounds of peanuts in the shell. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. These manufacturers produce peanut butter, candies, confections, bakery goods and ingredients for other foods, in addition to snack peanuts. The USA peanut industry is vibrant, but the private sector relies on the USDA-ARS to increase and expand markets through continual improvement of peanuts and peanut products across all segments of the industry, from farm to processors and consumers. This project is one of only two public research programs dedicated to improving the value of the crop by enhancing flavor, nutrition, and post harvest processing using modern food science technology. The specific objectives are: Objective 1, improvement of peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources; Objective 2, the identification of commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/roasted peanuts and peanut processing waste materials and to characterize their functional food attributes; Objective 3, to enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and /or bi-products as a livestock feed ingredient. This research will be accomplished using chemical and molecular biological techniques and methodology as well as sensory analytical techniques.

Progress 10/01/23 to 09/30/24

Outputs
PROGRESS REPORT Objectives (from AD-416): 1. Improve peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources. 1A. Investigation of peanut composition using targeted and non-targeted analyses to identify compounds and metabolomic pathways of formation related to peanut flavor formation. 1B. Evaluate the flavor and quality characteristics of specific peanut varieties or breeding lines in cooperation with U.S. peanut breeders. 2. Identify commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/roasted peanuts and characterize their functional food attributes. [NP306, C1 PS1B] 2A. Evaluate peanut skins as an antimicrobial ingredient in livestock feed. 2B. Determination of the effectiveness of extracts from peanut skins as a natural antioxidant in preventing the onset of rancidity in peanut butter. 3. Enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and/or by- products as a livestock (poultry, swine, and aquaculture) feed ingredient. Approach (from AD-416): The United States peanut industry generates approximately $4.4 billion annually in economic activity. With a value of over one billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks twelfth among USA food crops, grown on approximately 7,500 farms with 1.4 billion acres producing over five billion pounds of peanuts in the shell. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. These manufacturers produce peanut butter, candies, confections, bakery goods and ingredients for other foods, in addition to snack peanuts. The USA peanut industry is vibrant, but the private sector relies on the USDA-ARS to increase and expand markets through continual improvement of peanuts and peanut products across all segments of the industry, from farm to processors and consumers. This project is one of only two public research programs dedicated to improving the value of the crop by enhancing flavor, nutrition, and post harvest processing using modern food science technology. The specific objectives are: Objective 1, improvement of peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources; Objective 2, the identification of commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/ roasted peanuts and peanut processing waste materials and to characterize their functional food attributes; Objective 3, to enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and /or bi-products as a livestock feed ingredient. This research will be accomplished using chemical and molecular biological techniques and methodology as well as sensory analytical techniques. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina believe that with a value of over $1 billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks as second only to soybeans in terms of oilseed value. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina are focused on addressing issues of flavor, nutrition, processing, and value-added products that are critical to delivering optimized peanut products across all peanut industry segments. Objective 1: Research continued on the goal to improve peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources. Sub-objective 1A. Samples of the Spanish and Valencia market types were analyzed in the raw state for nutritional content (protein, moisture, total fat, fatty acid profiles, free and total amino acid profiles, sugar profile, tocopherols) and compared to runner market types by scientists in Raleigh, North Carolina. All samples were blanched (skins removed) before analysis. Samples were then roasted, and descriptive sensory analysis was performed by the trained sensory panel composed for ARS scientific personnel. The volatile and semi-volatile compounds in both the raw and the roasted samples were determined using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry in order to determine the compounds that could be associated with the differences in roasted peanut flavor between the market types. This information is needed to for comparison of the Spanish and Valencia market types with other market types to increase their use in USA peanut products. In addition, genomic researchers can use the data for determination of genetic markers for the compounds of interest. Sub-objective 1B. Samples of peanut cultivars in development for seed release during the crop year 2022 were evaluated by ARS scientist at Raleigh, North Carolina. The samples were grown in the United States by public plant breeders participating in the Uniform Peanut Performance Trials (UPPT) and send to the USDA-ARS National Peanut Research Laboratory (NPRL) at Dawson, Georgia. After shelling and sizing at NPRL, the samples were forwarded to ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina. The samples were analyzed for total fat, total protein moisture content, fatty acid and sugar profiles and tocopherol content. In addition, the samples were roasted, and the sensory characteristics were determined by a trained sensory panel. The data set was processed and reported to the cooperators and to the program website at the USDA, ARS, NPRL and North Carolina State University Department of Crop and Soil Sciences. Objective 2: Research continued on the goal to Identify commercially- viable bioactive compounds from raw/roasted peanuts and characterize their functional food attributes. Subobjective 2A. Subobjective 2B. This sub-objective was completed in 2022. Peanut skins and extracts of peanut skins were incorporated into ground peanut paste to evaluate the possible antioxidant/anti-rancidity properties of this peanut processing waste material. Some lipid oxidation was delayed over the course of the 6-month shelf-life study. The resulting changes in flavor, texture, and color were considered to be negative effects of the peanut skins and their extracts. The study was published in the journal, Peanut Science. Objective 3. Research continued on the goal to enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and/or by-products as a livestock (poultry, swine, and aquaculture) feed ingredient. ACCOMPLISHMENTS 01 Roasted peanut flavor is optimized by roasting conditions. The highest intensity possible of roasted peanut flavor is needed for processed food products such as peanut butter, candies and peanut ingredients for bakery products. ARS researchers at Raleigh, North Carolina evaluated the roasted peanut flavor using descriptive sensory analysis from peanuts roasted at a temperature commonly used by industrial roasted over a range of times to determine the time that resulted in the highest intensity of roasted peanut flavor and related that to a color that could be recommend to as the target roasted peanut color in an industrial setting. 02 High oleic soybean meal can serve as an alternative poultry feed. Full- fat soybean meal, a good source of dietary protein and energy, was evaluated as a replacement for solvent-extracted defatted soybean meal and vegetable oil in poultry rations by ARS scientists in Raleigh, North Carolina. It was found that feeding full-fat high-oleic soybean meal did not adversely affect broiler performance or meat quality in a 6-week feeding trial, which parallels results from previous high-oleic peanut poultry feeding trials. Poultry meat samples from broilers fed the full-fat high-oleic soybean meal had more monounsaturated fat, less polyunsaturated fat, and reduced saturated fat levels in the breast meat as compared to the controls. These studies demonstrated that high oleic oilseed cultivars may positively influence animal food production and can be utilized to enrich the commodities produced (poultry meat and eggs) with monounsaturated fatty acids while reducing saturated fats.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Muhammad, A., Joseph, M., Alfaro-Wisaquillo, M., Quintana-Ospina, G., Patino, D., Vu, T.C., Dean, L.L., Fallen, B.D., Mian, R.M., Taliercio, E.W. , Toomer, O.T., Oviedo-Rondon, E. 2024. Effects of high oleic full-fat soybean meal on broiler live performance, carcass and parts yield, and fatty acid composition of breast fillets. Poultry Science. 103(3):103399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.103399.
Ali, M., Joseph, M., Alfaro-Wisaquillo, M., Quintana-Ospina, G., Patino, D. , Penuela-Sierra, L., Vu, T.C., Mian, R.M., Taliercio, E.W., Toomer, O.T., Oviedo-Rondon, E. 2023. Standardized ileal amino acid digestibility of high-oleic full-fat soybean meal in broilers. Poultry Science. 102(12) :103152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.103152.
Ali, M., Joseph, M., Alfaro-Wisaquillo, M., Quintana-Ospina, G., Peñuela- Sierra, L., Patino, D., Vu, T.C., Mian, R.M., Toomer, O.T., Oviedo-Rondon, E. 2024. Influence of extruded soybean meal with varying fat and oleic acid content on nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy in broilers. Poultry Science. 103(3):103408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj. 2023.103408.
Weissburg, J.R., Dean, L.L., Hendrix, K. 2024. Changes in runner peanut quality parameters as a function of roast times. Peanut Science. 51(1):45- 58. https://doi.org/10.3146/0095-3679-51-PS23-8.
Dean, L.L. 2023. Peanut as a source of sustainable vegetable protein- processes and applications. In: Nadathur, S., Wanasundara, J. P. D., Scanlin, L., editors.Sustainable Protein Sources Advances for a Healthier Tomorrow. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier. Chapter 15. p. 311-322.

Progress 10/01/22 to 09/30/23

Outputs
PROGRESS REPORT Objectives (from AD-416): 1. Improve peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources. 1A. Investigation of peanut composition using targeted and non-targeted analyses to identify compounds and metabolomic pathways of formation related to peanut flavor formation. 1B. Evaluate the flavor and quality characteristics of specific peanut varieties or breeding lines in cooperation with U.S. peanut breeders. 2. Identify commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/roasted peanuts and characterize their functional food attributes. [NP306, C1 PS1B] 2A. Evaluate peanut skins as an antimicrobial ingredient in livestock feed. 2B. Determination of the effectiveness of extracts from peanut skins as a natural antioxidant in preventing the onset of rancidity in peanut butter. 3. Enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and/or by- products as a livestock (poultry, swine, and aquaculture) feed ingredient. Approach (from AD-416): The United States peanut industry generates approximately $4.4 billion annually in economic activity. With a value of over one billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks twelfth among USA food crops, grown on approximately 7,500 farms with 1.4 billion acres producing over five billion pounds of peanuts in the shell. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. These manufacturers produce peanut butter, candies, confections, bakery goods and ingredients for other foods, in addition to snack peanuts. The USA peanut industry is vibrant, but the private sector relies on the USDA-ARS to increase and expand markets through continual improvement of peanuts and peanut products across all segments of the industry, from farm to processors and consumers. This project is one of only two public research programs dedicated to improving the value of the crop by enhancing flavor, nutrition, and post harvest processing using modern food science technology. The specific objectives are: Objective 1, improvement of peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources; Objective 2, the identification of commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/ roasted peanuts and peanut processing waste materials and to characterize their functional food attributes; Objective 3, to enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and /or bi-products as a livestock feed ingredient. This research will be accomplished using chemical and molecular biological techniques and methodology as well as sensory analytical techniques. ARS researchers Raleigh, North Carolina, believe that with a value of over 1 billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks as second only to soybeans in terms of oilseed value. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. ARS researchers in Raleigh, North Carolina, are focused on addressing issues of flavor, nutrition, processing, and value-added products that are critical to delivering optimized peanut products across all peanut industry segments. Under Objective 1A samples of peanut cultivars from two of the four market types were obtained from cooperators in North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia, Oklahoma and Texas. The samples were high quality, raw, unblanched (skins on), shelled peanuts for human food uses of the Spanish and Valencia market types. Samples of the runner market types were also obtained to serve as controls. The samples were blanched (skins removed) and sized. The samples were analyzed in the raw state for nutritional content (protein, moisture, total fat, fatty acid profiles, free and total amino acid profiles, sugar profile, tocopherols). Samples were then roasted, and descriptive sensory analysis was performed by the trained sensory panel composed for ARS scientific personnel. This information is needed for comparison of the Spanish and Valencia market types with other market types to increase their use in USA peanut products. Under Objective 1B samples of peanut cultivars in development for seed release during the crop year 2021 were evaluated by ARS researchers in Raleigh, North Carolina. The samples were grown in the United States by public plant breeders participating in the Uniform Peanut Performance Trials and sent to the USDA-ARS National Peanut Research Laboratory (NPRL) at Dawson, Georgia. After shelling and sizing at NPRL, the samples were forwarded to ARS researchers in Raleigh, North Carolina. The samples were analyzed for total fat, total protein moisture content, fatty acid and sugar profiles and tocopherol content. In addition, the samples were roasted, and the sensory characteristics were determined by a trained sensory panel. The data set was processed and reported to the cooperators and to the program website at the USDA, ARS, NPRL. In regards to Objective 2A salmonella is the leading cause of bacterial foodborne zoonoses in humans. Thus, the development of strategies to control bacterial pathogens in poultry is essential. Peanut skins, a waste by-product of the peanut blanching industry, contain polyphenolic compounds possessing antimicrobial properties. ARS researchers in Raleigh, North Carolina, evaluated peanut skins as antibacterial feed additives in the diets of broiler chickens. One hundred and sixty male hatchlings were assigned to 4 treatments: 1) Peanut skin diet (PS) without inoculation with Salmonella Enteritidis (SE), 2) Peanut skin diet with SE inoculation, 3) Control diet without SE inoculation (CON), and 4) Control diet with SE inoculation (CONSE). The ileal microbiota was determined. The cecal microbiota of the broilers fed the PS diets were characterized and compared to the CON diets. In regards to Objective 2B it was completed in 2022. Peanut skins and extracts of peanut skins were incorporated into ground peanut paste to evaluate the possible antioxidant/anti-rancidity properties of this peanut processing waste material. Some lipid oxidation was delayed over the course of the 6-month shelf-life study. The resulting changes in flavor, texture, and color were considered to be negative effects of the peanut skins and their extracts as functional food additives. Under Objective 3 the publication for the poultry feeding trials performed in the previous year was prepared and published. Design of the aquaculture study was started. ACCOMPLISHMENTS 01 Phenotyping the composition of African peanut cultivars. Phenotyping of the chemical composition of peanut cultivars from cooperators at the Senegal Institute of Agricultural Research (ISRA) at Theis-Escale, Senegal and the National Agricultural Research Organization-National Semi-Arid Resources and Research Institute (NARO-NaSARRI) at Soroti, Uganda was performed by ARS researchrs in Raleigh, North Carolina. These lines have been developed specifically for optimal growth in the environments and soil types of these production areas in Africa in cooperation with the Feed the Future Innovation Laboratory at the University of Georgia and USAID. The nutritional information from the study is being used by the growers to select the best cultivars for their growing conditions for increased food stability and high-quality nutrition for their populations. 02 Sweet potato processing waste has applications as poultry feed. North Carolina is a major producer of sweet potatoes in the USA. An ARS researcher in Raleigh, North Carolina, evaluated the incorporation of sweet potato processing waste into feed for layer hens. The addition at levels of 4% were compared to additions of high oleic peanuts at 8% and controls without these additives. Egg quality was not significantly diminished by the additives. The addition of sweet potato processing waste resulted in an increase in the orange color of the egg yolks. A producer of sweet potato puree can redirect processing waste material to the poultry feed market. 03 Determination of precursor compounds to roasted peanut flavor. The maintenance and possible increase of roasted peanut flavor is an important element to be considered when developing new peanut cultivars. In the current global market, USA peanuts command the highest prices due to their superior flavor and quality. A comprehensive study by ARS researchers in Raleigh, North Carolina, of the changes in peanut composition during roasting and the identification of the conditions to produce the optimal roasted peanut flavor in runner peanuts identified the free amino acids that serve as precursors to compounds formed that have roasted peanut flavor correlations was done. These identifications give peanut plant breeders specific compounds to match with molecular markers for peanut flavor improvement. 04 Inshell high oleic peanuts are a viable poultry feed ingredient. ARS researchers in Raleigh, North Carolina, determined that nonfood grade inshell peanuts may have higher value applications beyond the use for the production of oil. Unshelled peanuts added to rations for laying hens reduced protein digestibility for the birds but did not affect egg laying performance or body weight when compared to control rations without peanuts or rations contained shelled peanuts. Peanuts unsuitable for human food can be added to poultry feed without the expense of removing the shells.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Marsh, A., Azcarate-Peril, M., Aljumaah, M., Neville, J., Perrin, M.T., Dean, L.L., Wheeler, M.D., Hines, I.N., Pawlek, R. 2023. Fatty acid profile driven by maternal diet shapes the composition of human breast milk microbiota. Frontiers in Microbiomes. 1:1041752. https://doi.org/10. 3389/frmbi.2022.1041752.
Maharjan, P., Rahimi, A., Harding, K.L., Vu, T.C., Malheiros, R., Oviedo, E.R., Mian, R.M., Joseph, M., Dean, L.L., Anderson, K.E., Toomer, O.T. 2023. Effects of full-fat high-oleic soybean meal in layer diets on nutrient digestibility and egg quality parameters of a white laying hen strain. Poultry Science. 102:102486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023. 102486.
Fritz, K.R., Dean, L.L., Hendrix, K., Andres, R.S., Newman, C.S., Oakley, A.T., Clevenger, J.P., Dunne, J.C. 2022. Flavor quality and composition of accessions resources in the North Carolina State University peanut breeding program. Crop Science. 62:1880-1890. https://doi.org/10.1002/csc2. 20774.
Harding, K.L., Vu, T.C., Wysocky, R., Joseph, M., Malheiros, R., Anderson, K.E., Toomer, O.T. 2023. The effect of feeding a sweetpotato and/or high- oleic peanut diet on layer performance and the quality and chemistry of eggs produced. International Journal of Poultry Science. 22(1):73-83. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2023.73.83.
Harding, K.L., Malheiros, D.M., Vu, T.C., Wysocky, R., Malheiros, R.M., Anderson, K.E., Toomer, O.T. 2022. Effect of feeding whole-in-shell peanuts and high-oleic peanuts to laying hens on ileal nutrient digestibility. International Journal of Poultry Science. 21(4):166-173. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2022.166.173.
Harding, K.L., Malheiros, D.M., Vu, T.C., Wysocky, R., Malheiros, R.M., Anderson, K.E., Toomer, O.T. 2022. Effect of feeding sweet potato and/or high-oleic peanuts to laying hens on ileal nutrient digestibility. International Journal of Poultry Science. 21(4):174-180. https://doi.org/ 10.3923/ijps.2022.174.180.
Weissburg, J.R., Johanningsmeier, S.D., Dean, L.L. 2023. Volatile compound profiles of raw and roasted peanut seeds of the runner and virginia market- types. Journal of Food Research. 12(3):47-68. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr. v12n3p47.
Mohebpour, D.A., Dean, L.L., Harding, R.O., Hendrix, K. 2023. Effects of peanut skin extracts on the shelf life of unstabilized peanut butter. Peanut Science. 50(1):8-21. https://doi.org/10.3146/0095-3679-501-PS22-8.

Progress 10/01/21 to 09/30/22

Outputs
PROGRESS REPORT Objectives (from AD-416): 1. Improve peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources. 1A. Investigation of peanut composition using targeted and non-targeted analyses to identify compounds and metabolomic pathways of formation related to peanut flavor formation. 1B. Evaluate the flavor and quality characteristics of specific peanut varieties or breeding lines in cooperation with U.S. peanut breeders. 2. Identify commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/roasted peanuts and characterize their functional food attributes. [NP306, C1 PS1B] 2A. Evaluate peanut skins as an antimicrobial ingredient in livestock feed. 2B. Determination of the effectiveness of extracts from peanut skins as a natural antioxidant in preventing the onset of rancidity in peanut butter. 3. Enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and/or by- products as a livestock (poultry, swine, and aquaculture) feed ingredient. Approach (from AD-416): The United States peanut industry generates approximately $4.4 billion annually in economic activity. With a value of over one billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks twelfth among USA food crops, grown on approximately 7,500 farms with 1.4 billion acres producing over five billion pounds of peanuts in the shell. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. These manufacturers produce peanut butter, candies, confections, bakery goods and ingredients for other foods, in addition to snack peanuts. The USA peanut industry is vibrant, but the private sector relies on the USDA-ARS to increase and expand markets through continual improvement of peanuts and peanut products across all segments of the industry, from farm to processors and consumers. This project is one of only two public research programs dedicated to improving the value of the crop by enhancing flavor, nutrition, and post harvest processing using modern food science technology. The specific objectives are: Objective 1, improvement of peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources; Objective 2, the identification of commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/ roasted peanuts and peanut processing waste materials and to characterize their functional food attributes; Objective 3, to enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and /or bi-products as a livestock feed ingredient. This research will be accomplished using chemical and molecular biological techniques and methodology as well as sensory analytical techniques. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina, believe that with a value of over 1 billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks as second only to soybeans in terms of oilseed value. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina are focused on addressing issues of flavor, nutrition, processing, and value-added products that are critical to delivering optimized peanut products across all peanut industry segments. Objective 1A. Samples of peanut cultivars from two of the four market types currently in commercial cultivation were grown, harvested, cured, shelled, and sorted at the USDA-ARS, National Peanut Research Laboratory (NPRL) in Dawson, Georgia. The samples were roasted to a specific roast color. The flavor of the samples was evaluated by the descriptive sensory panel composed of ARS scientific personnel. Using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy, the volatile and semi-volatile compounds produced by roasting were determined and quantified. This information proved the relationship between roasted peanut flavor impact and specific chemical compounds formed. The precursors to these compounds can now be identified for a possible link to specific genes for maintenance and improvement of roast peanut flavor. This information is a priority of the Peanut Foundation Genomic Initiative, Part II. Objective 1B. Samples of peanut cultivars in development for seed release during the crop year 2020 were evaluated by ARS scientists in Raleigh, North Carolina. The samples were grown in the United States by public plant breeders participating in the Uniform Peanut Performance Trials and sent to the USDA-ARS, National Peanut Research Laboratory (NPRL) in Dawson, Georgia. After shelling and sizing, the samples were forwarded to ARS scientists in Raleigh, North Carolina. The samples were analyzed for total fat, total protein, moisture content, fatty acid and sugar profiles, and tocopherol content. In addition, the samples were roasted, and the sensory characteristics were determined by a trained sensory panel. The data set was processed and reported to the cooperators and to the program website at the USDA-ARS, NPRL. Objective 2A. Salmonella is the leading cause of bacterial foodborne zoonoses in humans, making strategies to control bacterial pathogens in poultry essential. Peanut skins, a waste by-product of the peanut blanching industry, contain polyphenolic compounds possessing antimicrobial properties. A poultry feeding trial with broiler chickens using peanut skins as an antibacterial feed additive in the diets of broilers to prevent the proliferation of Salmonella enteritidis (SE) was conducted. One hundred sixty male hatchlings (Ross 308) were randomly assigned to, (1) peanut skin diet without SE inoculation; (2) peanut skin diet and SE inoculation; 3) control diet without SE inoculation; and (4) control diet with SE inoculation. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in weekly average pen body weight, total feed consumption, bird weight gain, feed conversion ratio and in SE colony forming units (CFU)/g for the fecal or litter samples or in the feed conversion ratio between the treatment groups, the control fed group inoculated with Salmonella or the peanut skin fed group inoculated with Salmonella. However, for both fecal and litter samples, the group fed the peanut skin diet and inoculated with Salmonella tended (P = 0.1) to have a lower Salmonella CFU/g compared to the control fed group inoculated with Salmonella. Peanut skins may have potential application as an antimicrobial feed additive to reduce the transmission or proliferation of SE in poultry environments or flocks. Objective 2B. Extracts from peanut skins were encapsulated with maltodextrin to create a free-flowing powder according to methodology previously developed by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina. Freshly roasted peanuts were obtained within hours of production from an industry cooperator and used to create peanut butter. The peanut skin powder was incorporated into the peanut butter at levels of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% (w/w). Another set of samples was created in the same way with the addition of peanut skin extracts that had not been encapsulated with maltodextrin. As the controls, untreated peanut butter and peanut butter created with unblanched peanuts (skins on) were prepared. The samples were packed into glass jars, sealed, stored in incubators at 30°C, then removed and sampled at 1-month intervals over a period of 6 months. Each sample, including a control at zero time were analyzed for fatty acid profiles, tocopherols, moisture, peroxide value, hexanal and pentanal content. The samples were also evaluated by a descriptive sensory panel using the standard peanut lexicon. The study was completed, and the resulting data evaluated. A publication was submitted for peer review. This completes this subobjective for the project plan. Objective 3. Poultry Feeding Trial 1: A layer feeding trial to determine the utilization of whole-in-shell high-oleic peanuts (WPN) and/or unblanched high-oleic peanuts (HOPN) as an alternative feed ingredient for poultry was conducted. Layer hens were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments: a conventional control diet (C1); a diet containing 4% WPN; an 8% HOPN diet; and a conventional control diet containing soy protein isolate (C2). There were no significant differences in body weights or egg weights after 6 weeks. Hens fed the C2 diet produced more total dozen eggs relative to C1 hens over the feeding trial (P < 0.05). Hens fed the C1 diet consumed less total feed relative to the other treatments with the best feed conversion ratio (P < 0.05). There were no differences in egg quality, with the exception of yolk color, with significantly higher yolk color scores in eggs produced from the C1 and C2 treatments relative to the other treatments (P < 0.05). Eggs produced from the HOPN treatment had significantly reduced stearic and linoleic fatty acid levels relative to the other treatments (P < 0.05). Eggs produced from hens fed the WPN diet had significantly greater beta- carotene content relative to eggs from the other treatment groups (P < 0. 05). This study suggests that WPN and/or HOPN may be a suitable alternative layer feed ingredient and a dietary means to enrich the eggs produced while not adversely affecting hen performance. Poultry Feeding Trial 2: The search for locally grown alternative feed ingredients has become a priority over the years to recapture nutrients that could be used for animal feed. This study used 48 Shaver hens aimed to examine feeding an 8% inclusion of HOPN, or a 4% inclusion of whole-in- shell peanuts (WPS), compared to a conventional control (Control) in a 6- week feeding trial using Celite as an indigestible marker. Bodyweights, total feed consumed, total dozens of eggs, and feed conversion ratio were not significantly different between treatments. The apparent metabolizable energy corrected for nitrogen showed significant differences (P < 0.0001) between treatments with the Control and HOPN being higher than WPS. There were no differences between the apparent nitrogen retention of the Control and HOPN groups, however, the WPS apparent nitrogen retention percentage was significantly less than all the other two treatments (P < 0.05). When analyzing the fat digestibility, WPS treatment had the highest fat with the Control being the lowest (P < 0.0001). The apparent protein digestibility of hens fed the Control diet was significantly greater (P < 0.0001) than either treatment, with HOPN being the next highest. The WPS resulted in the lowest digestible protein percentage compared to the other treatments analyzed (P < 0.0001). Feeding HOPN could be beneficial because they have comparable apparent metabolizable energy, apparent nitrogen retention, as well as both apparent fat and protein digestibility to a conventional control diet. It may not be beneficial to feed WPS without supplemental protein and/or energy added to the feed due to lower digestibility values. The impact of this study is the additional validation of peanuts as a viable nutrient rich alternative feed ingredient for layers while opening the potential for greater utilization of peanuts in poultry production with positive economic outcomes for the peanut industry. Poultry Feeding Trial 3: Peanut skins are a waste by-product generated in the peanut blanching industry. The effect of peanut skins in the diet of egg-producing hens was compared to an unblanched high-oleic peanut diet or an oleic acid oil supplemented diet on performance, egg quality and chemistry. Two hundred commercial hens were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments with five replicates/treatment. The dietary treatments consisted of a conventional control diet, diet containing 24% unblanched high-oleic peanut (HO PN), diet containing 3% peanut skin (PN Skin), and a diet with 2.5% oleic acid fed for 8 weeks. At week 8, hens fed the HO PN diet had significantly reduced body weights relative hens in the control and PN Skin treatments (P < 0.05), while producing fewer total dozen eggs over the 8-week period (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the feed conversion ratios between the treatment groups (P > 0.05). Eggs weights were similar between the control and PN Skin treatments at week 2 and 4, while eggs from the PN Skin treatment group were heavier than other treatment groups at week 6 and 8 (P < 0.0001). Eggs from the HO PN treatment group had reduced palmitic and stearic saturated fatty acid in comparison to the other treatment groups, while the fatty acid profile was similar between PN Skin and Control eggs at week 8 (P < 0.0001). This study suggests that feeding egg-producing hens a PN skin supplemented diet does not adversely affect hen performance, shell egg quality or lipid profile. ACCOMPLISHMENTS 01 Phenotyping the composition of heirloom peanut cultivars. It has been suggested that older ⿿heirloom⿝ peanut cultivars have better roasted peanut flavor than those under commercial production at this time. Reintroducing these lines into limited production will provide higher economic value to small producers of peanuts for specific culinary applications. Phenotyping of chemical composition and the sensory characteristics of several peanut cultivars no longer in commercial production was performed by ARS scientists in Raleigh, North Carolina. These lines were found to possess favorable nutrient profiles and higher flavor impact than some cultivars current being produced on the commercial level. This information will aid in bringing some older lines to the attention of specialty users and provide incentives for peanut breeders to reintroduce these cultivars. 02 Value added uses of waste peanut skins. Peanut skins are a waste material from the peanut blanching industry with hundreds of thousands of pounds produced each year with little or no economic value. Their current use as animal feed is limited due to their bitter flavor and astringency. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina, removed the phenolic compounds responsible for these negative responses using food grade solvents. The resulting material was high in protein and fiber, but without bitter flavors. Studies done in cooperation with Fort Valley State University at Macon, Georgia (an HBCU) showed that the material after extraction was palatable to sheep and that feeding peanut skins increased the quality of the meat and the incorporation of antioxidants. 03 Extracts of peanut skins as functional food ingredients. Phenolic rich extracts from peanut skins that had been encapsulated with maltodextrin to mitigate the bitter flavor and astringency were incorporated into freshly made peanut butter to determine their suitability as a natural source of antioxidants. Although previous research by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina, had demonstrated that there is little negative flavor impact from the extract when used in foods and that the extracts were able to reduce glycemic response to peanuts in human subjects, the extracts were not able to retard the onset of rancidity in the peanut butter when compared to controls without the additive. 04 Inclusion of peanut skins in the diets of layer hens improves egg fatty acid profiles. The addition of peanut skins to the diet of layer hens at a level of 3% was compared with conventional layer hen diets and those containing 24% skin on (unblanched) high oleic peanuts and those with the addition of 2.5% of high oleic peanut oil. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina, suggest the inclusion of the peanut skins resulted in heavier egg weights. The inclusion of the whole peanuts in the diets resulted in eggs with lower levels of saturated fatty acids than the other diets. Eggs with lower saturated fatty acid levels would be a healthier alternative than conventional eggs. 05 Inclusion of peanut skins in the diets of newly hatched broiler chickens. The addition of peanut skins to the diets of chickens being raised for meat were compared by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina, to conventional broiler chicken diets that had been inoculated with Salmonella. The amount of feed consumed, the bird weight, the feed conversion rate and the bacteria load were not different between the study groups. The chickens fed peanut skins did have lower Salmonella levels than the control. Peanut skins may be considered as an antimicrobial feed additive.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Chamberlin, K.D., Grey, T.L., Puppala, N., Holbrook, C.C., Isleib, T.G., Dunne, J., Dean, L.O., Hurdle, N.L., Payton, M.E. 2021. Comparison of field emergence and thermal gradient table germination rates of seed from high oleic and low oleic near isogenic peanut lines. Peanut Science. 48:131-143.
Redhead, A.K., Azman, N., Nasaruddin, A., Vu, T.C., Santos, F., Malheiros, R., Hussin, A.M., Toomer, O.T. 2021. Peanut skins as a natural antimicrobial feed additive to reduce the transmission of Salmonella in poultry meat produced for human consumption. Journal of Food Protection. 85(10):1479-1487. https://doi.org/10.4315/JFP-21-205.
Toomer, O.T., Vu, T.C., Wysocky, R., Moraes, V., Malheiros, R., Anderson, K.E. 2021. The effect of feeding hens a peanut skin-containing diet on hen performance, and shell egg quality and lipid chemistry. Agriculture. 11:894. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11090894.
Toomer, O.T., Vu, T.C., Sanders, E.A., Redhead, A.K., Malheiros, R., Anderson, K.E. 2021. Feeding laying hens a diet containing high-oleic peanuts or oleic acid enriches yolk color and beta-carotene while reducing the saturated fatty acid content in eggs. Agriculture Journal. 11:771. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080771.
Harding, K.L., Vu, T.C., Wysocky, R., Malheiros, R., Anderson, K., Toomer, O.T. 2021. The effects of feeding whole-in-shell peanut-containing diet on layer performance and the quality and chemistry of eggs produced. Agriculture. 11(11):1176. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11111176.

Progress 10/01/20 to 09/30/21

Outputs
Progress Report Objectives (from AD-416): 1. Improve peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources. 1A. Investigation of peanut composition using targeted and non-targeted analyses to identify compounds and metabolomic pathways of formation related to peanut flavor formation. 1B. Evaluate the flavor and quality characteristics of specific peanut varieties or breeding lines in cooperation with U.S. peanut breeders. 2. Identify commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/roasted peanuts and characterize their functional food attributes. [NP306, C1 PS1B] 2A. Evaluate peanut skins as an antimicrobial ingredient in livestock feed. 2B. Determination of the effectiveness of extracts from peanut skins as a natural antioxidant in preventing the onset of rancidity in peanut butter. 3. Enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and/or by- products as a livestock (poultry, swine, and aquaculture) feed ingredient. Approach (from AD-416): The United States peanut industry generates approximately $4.4 billion annually in economic activity. With a value of over one billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks twelfth among USA food crops, grown on approximately 7,500 farms with 1.4 billion acres producing over five billion pounds of peanuts in the shell. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. These manufacturers produce peanut butter, candies, confections, bakery goods and ingredients for other foods, in addition to snack peanuts. The USA peanut industry is vibrant, but the private sector relies on the USDA-ARS to increase and expand markets through continual improvement of peanuts and peanut products across all segments of the industry, from farm to processors and consumers. This project is one of only two public research programs dedicated to improving the value of the crop by enhancing flavor, nutrition, and post harvest processing using modern food science technology. The specific objectives are: Objective 1, improvement of peanut flavor, flavor consistency and nutritional composition through integration of novel peanut genetic/genomic resources; Objective 2, the identification of commercially-viable bioactive compounds from raw/ roasted peanuts and peanut processing waste materials and to characterize their functional food attributes; Objective 3, to enable the commercial use of whole high-oleic peanuts and /or bi-products as a livestock feed ingredient. This research will be accomplished using chemical and molecular biological techniques and methodology as well as sensory analytical techniques. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina believe with a value of over one billion dollars at the farm level, the peanut crop ranks as number twelve among United States food crops. In addition, the peanut industry is composed of producers, shellers, and manufacturers. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina are focused on addressing issues of flavor, nutrition, processing, and value-added products that are critical to delivering optimized peanut products across all peanut industry segments. Samples of peanuts from commercial warehouses were roasted by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina based on previous research to a range of levels as distinguished by final roast color. Using gas chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectroscopy, the volatile and semi-volatile compounds were identified by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina. Due to COVID restrictions, the confirmation of the identities was not confirmed from authentic standards. Once complete, these compounds will be evaluated by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina as contributors to distinct flavors that have been confirmed in the samples by descriptive sensory analysis. This information will used to prove the relationship between specific genes which produce the compounds and generation of peanut flavor. This information is a priority of the Peanut Foundation Genomic Initiative, Part II. Peanut skins were obtained by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina from a commercial blanching plant and incorporated into feed for laying hens over the course of three studies of 6 weeks each. The treatment groups were: (1) Non-inoculated conventional fed group; (2) Non- inoculated peanut-skin supplemented conventional fed group; (3) Orally inoculated with Salmonella group fed non-supplemented control diet; (4) Orally inoculated Salmonella peanut-skin supplemented group. Eggs, drag swab, fecal, feed and water environmental samples were collected by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina weekly and analyzed for microbial content. At termination, fecal content and tissue samples (intestine) were collected by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina. Intestinal samples of the jejuna and ileum were processed by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina using standard histological processing with H& E staining procedures. Growth performance was evaluated by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina bi-weekly with weekly recorded body weight and feed intake. Mortality was recorded daily. A peer reviewed publication is being prepared. Peanut extract skin powder encapsulated with maltodextrin was prepared by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina according to methodology developed previously to produce a free-flowing powder. The powder was incorporated into freshly prepared peanut butter at levels of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0% (w/w). The maximum value of addition was based on the maximum that synthetic antioxidants are added to foods. Samples were portioned by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina into glass jars, sealed, and stored in an incubator at 30�C. Samples were removed at1- month intervals over the course of 6 months. The controls will be the samples at the time of preparation (zero time). Each sample was analyzed by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina for fatty acid profiles, tocopherols, moisture, and peroxide value. In addition, samples were analyzed by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina for the pentanal and hexanal using static headspace sampling with gas chromatography. The samples were evaluated by the descriptive panel maintained using the standard peanut lexicon. The ability of the additive to delay or prevent rancidity is being evaluated. A manuscript will be prepared and submitted bby ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina to a peer reviewed journal. Uniform Peanut Performance Tests (UPPT). Samples of peanut varieties and breeding line currently in development were provided by participating USA peanut breeders in the UPPT for the crop year 2019. Samples were analyzed for total fat, total protein, moisture content, fatty acid and sugar profiles, tocopherol content and sensory characteristics after roasting by a trained descriptive sensory panel. Creation of the data set is still in progress as laboratory work was was delayed due to COVID restrictions. The data will be compiled and reported to the cooperators and to the program website at the USDA-ARS National Peanut Research Laboratory. Laying hen feeding trials consisting of laying hens (36-40 week) randomly assigned to one of five isonitrogenous (18% crude protein) treatment diets with 120 birds per treatment, 6 replicates/treatment and 20 birds/replicate: with the following treatment groups: (1) conventional control soybean meal + corn diet; (2) low level-unblanched high-oleic/ normal-oleic peanut supplemented diet; (3) high level-high-oleic/normal oleic peanut meal supplemented diet; (4) oleic acid oil supplemented diet; (5) 4% peanut skin supplemented diet. Body and feed weights were recorded weekly. Daily shell eggs were collected by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina, and egg weights recorded from each hen. Weekly, shell eggs were analyzed by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina for quality (yolk color DSM, albumen height, Haugh unit) and USDA grading. Egg yolk color, egg albumen, shell and vitelline membrane strengths were determined. Homogenous pooled egg samples were analyzed by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina for total cholesterol, �-carotene and 36 differing fatty acids. Production performance is being determined bi- weekly using the feed intake, egg production, and feed conversion ratio. A peer reviewed publication will be produced. Record of Any Impact of Maximized Teleworking Requirement: For most of 2020, ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina were not permitted to work in laboratories. This delayed the confirmation of the compounds identified in the volatile and semi-volatile profiles generate for raw and roasted peanuts for Milestone 1. No chemical or sensory analysis was possible for the samples for Milestone 2. ACCOMPLISHMENTS 01 Phenotyping of the composition of a peanut chromosome segment substitution line (CSSL) population. Phenotyping of the composition of a peanut chromosome segment substitution line (CSSL) population was performed by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina. 122 lines had been developed with a small chromosomal segment from wild species with a spanish type cultivar. The effects of the wild introgressions on oil content, fatty acid composition, sugar profile and protein content on a subset of the CSSLs relative to the cultivated parent. The effect of introgressions on these lines are being used by Institute of Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics at the University of Georgia to produce new sources of high oleic peanut polymorphisms. Such polymorphisms have the potential for use in further improving peanut oil quality. 02 An organic peanut production survey of peanut farmers in the Virginia- Carolina region. A survey of peanut farmers in the Virginia-Carolina region was conducted by ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina to gather information on the interest of organic peanut production. The demand for organic food sources has increased exponentially over the past decade. No organic sources of peanuts are available for the Virginia-Carolina region. The survey determined the price incentive needed to have farmers produce organic peanut crops. This information was provided to extension agents, farmers, and researchers to promote organic peanut production for the Virginia-Carolina region. 03 Awarded the 2020 ARS 12th Round-ARS Innovation. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina were awarded the 2020 ARS 12th Round-ARS Innovation Award Funding ($25,000) to determine the use of high-oleic peanuts and/or peanut skins as a value-added alternative feed ingredient for aquaculture to enhance the quality and/or nutritional composition of the meat produced. These results will support ARS national program research objectives with �expansion of market opportunities for agricultural products and waste by-products� (NP 216) and the �creation of new products� (NP 306) as value-added feed additives while promoting agricultural sustainability. 04 Awarded the 2021 U.S. Soybean Board Grant. ARS scientists at Raleigh, North Carolina were awarded the 2021 U.S. Soybean Board Grant, �Expansion of US Soybean Market with the Utilization of Full-fat High- Oleic Soybean Meal in Poultry and Aquaculture Feed to Enrich Meat and Eggs for Human Consumption� ($187,120) and the NC Soybean Producers Association Grant, �Valuation for Differentiation of NC Soybean Meal in Poultry and Livestock Feed Formulation� ($25,000). These studies aim to determine the economic impact and dietary effects of full-fat high- oleic soybean meal as an alternative feed ingredient for broiler chickens, layers, and striped bass. The results will support economic growth within the Soybean Industry and market expansion of high-oleic soybeans within the agriculture animal food production sector as a preferable feed ingredient, providing producers with extended shelf- life of high-oleic soybean meal, enhanced livestock performance, and nutritional enrichment of the commodities produced.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Lahiri, S., Reisig, D.D., Dean, L.L., Reay-Jones, F.P., Greene, J.K., Carter Jr, T.E., Mian, R.M., Fallen, B.D. 2020. Mechanisms of soybean host plant resistance against Megacopta cribraria (F.) (Hemiptera: Plataspidae). Environmental Entomology. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvaa075.
Gimode, D., Chu, Y., Dean, L.L., Holbrook Jr, C.C., Fonceka, D., Ozias- Akins, P. 2020. Seed composition survey of a peanut CSSL population reveals introgression lines with elevated oleic/linoleic profile. Peanut Science. 47:139�149. https://doi.org/10.3146/PS20-17.1.
Toomer, O.T., Sanders, E., Vu, T.C., Malheiros,, R.D., Redhead, A.K., Livingston, M., Livingston, K., Carvalho,, L., Ferket, P. 2020. The effects of high-oleic peanuts as an alternative feed ingredient on broiler performance, ileal digestibility, apparent metabolizable energy and histology of the intestine. Translational Animal Science. 4(3):txaa137. https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txaa137.
Kaufman, A.A., Jordan, D.L., Reberg-Horton, S., Dean, L.L., Shew, B.B., Anco, D.J., Mehi, H., Taylor, S., Balota, M., Goodell, L., Allen, J.C., Brandenberg, R.L. 2020. Identifying interest, risks, and impressions of organic peanut production: A survey of conventional farmers in the Virginia-Carolina region. Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management. 6(1):e20042. https://doi.org/10.1002/cft2.20042.
Ucar, R.A., Perez Diaz, I.M., Dean, L.L. 2020. Content of xylose, trehalose and L-citrulline in cucumber fermentations and utilization of such compounds by certain lactic acid bacteria. Food Microbiology. 91:103454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2020.103454.
Ucar, R.A., Perez Diaz, I.M., Dean, L.L. 2020. Gentiobiose and cellobiose content in fresh and fermenting cucumbers and utilization of such disaccharides by lactic acid bacteria in fermented cucumber juice medium. Food Science and Nutrition. 8(11):5798-5810. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3. 1830.
Butts, C.L., Dean, L.L., Hendrix, K., Arias De Ares, R.S., Sorensen, R.B., Lamb, M.C. 2021. Hermetic storage of shelled peanut using the purdue improved crop storage bags. Peanut Science. 48(1):22-32. https://doi.org/ 10.3146/PS20-31.1.