Restoring and Managing Great Basin Ecosystems - AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE

Goals / Objectives
1) Develop practices and strategies for restoring perennial livestock forage systems, improving Great Basin rangelands using practices such as grazing management, soil treatments, seed coatings, and traditional restoration techniques. (NP215 Component 1; Problem Statements A and C) 2) Develop decision-support tools to enhance livestock production and precision restoration efforts, while also providing other ecosystem services, in different sites, climate conditions, and management systems on northwestern rangelands. (NP215 Component 1; Problem Statement B) 3) Develop effective precision restoration technologies and practices that target specific restoration needs, provide forage for productive grazing, and enhance sage grouse habitat. The technologies and practices could include areas such as engineering of improved means of site and seed preparation, new equipment or techniques for planting, development and use of amendments such as biochar, or others. (NP215 Component 1; Problem Statements B and C)

Project Methods
The mission of the Burns unit is to provide the science for sound land and livestock management. This five-year plan builds on a rich history of research at this location, in some cases reaching back to the 1940's. The majority of the western U.S. is occupied by rangelands and the most efficient commodity production in the rangeland environment is grazing livestock. Sustainable management of western U.S. rangelands is facing threats of unprecedented scale from annual grass invasion, encroaching conifers, and an uncertain climate future. Simultaneously, the societal demand for a diversity of ecosystem services from these resources has increased dramatically in recent years. Producers and land managers in the western U.S. are faced with information gaps regarding plant community restoration and establishment of desired species, management of grazing livestock, and vegetation responses to management actions in spatially and temporally variable environments. Filling these information gaps is critical to maintaining the security of livestock forage across the western U.S. During the next five years we will build on our prior research addressing issues critical to our understanding and management of sagebrush steppe rangeland. Our focus will be on 1) developing management practices and tools for restoring/rehabilitating sagebrush steppe following weed invasion and juniper expansion, and 2) developing management guidelines and assessment systems for conserving intact plant communities in a variable environment. Although the problem areas addressed by the Burns location stem from local and regional scale issues, our specific research questions and designs help to illuminate principles applicable to national and international issues and audiences through peer review research and synthesis publications. A focus of this research unit has been to provide tools that managers can use, including but not limited to non-technical research reports, information syntheses, field guides and decision trees. Projected benefits of successfully completing and transferring this research are: 1) improved management of existing sagebrush steppe for a variety of uses including forage production and habitat for critical wildlife species, 2) increased probability of success for restoration/revegetation projects, 3) increased ability to determine the effects of management practices within complex landscapes, and 4) a better understanding of the role of climate and site factors in influencing site productivity and restoration/revegetation success.

Progress 09/10/12 to 09/09/17

Outputs
Progress Report Objectives (from AD-416): 1) Develop practices and strategies for restoring perennial livestock forage systems, improving Great Basin rangelands using practices such as grazing management, soil treatments, seed coatings, and traditional restoration techniques. (NP215 Component 1; Problem Statements A and C) 2) Develop decision-support tools to enhance livestock production and precision restoration efforts, while also providing other ecosystem services, in different sites, climate conditions, and management systems on northwestern rangelands. (NP215 Component 1; Problem Statement B) 3) Develop effective precision restoration technologies and practices that target specific restoration needs, provide forage for productive grazing, and enhance sage grouse habitat. The technologies and practices could include areas such as engineering of improved means of site and seed preparation, new equipment or techniques for planting, development and use of amendments such as biochar, or others. (NP215 Component 1; Problem Statements B and C) Approach (from AD-416): The mission of the Burns unit is to provide the science for sound land and livestock management. This five-year plan builds on a rich history of research at this location, in some cases reaching back to the 1940's. The majority of the western U.S. is occupied by rangelands and the most efficient commodity production in the rangeland environment is grazing livestock. Sustainable management of western U.S. rangelands is facing threats of unprecedented scale from annual grass invasion, encroaching conifers, and an uncertain climate future. Simultaneously, the societal demand for a diversity of ecosystem services from these resources has increased dramatically in recent years. Producers and land managers in the western U.S. are faced with information gaps regarding plant community restoration and establishment of desired species, management of grazing livestock, and vegetation responses to management actions in spatially and temporally variable environments. Filling these information gaps is critical to maintaining the security of livestock forage across the western U.S. During the next five years we will build on our prior research addressing issues critical to our understanding and management of sagebrush steppe rangeland. Our focus will be on 1) developing management practices and tools for restoring/rehabilitating sagebrush steppe following weed invasion and juniper expansion, and 2) developing management guidelines and assessment systems for conserving intact plant communities in a variable environment. Although the problem areas addressed by the Burns location stem from local and regional scale issues, our specific research questions and designs help to illuminate principles applicable to national and international issues and audiences through peer review research and synthesis publications. A focus of this research unit has been to provide tools that managers can use, including but not limited to non-technical research reports, information syntheses, field guides and decision trees. Projected benefits of successfully completing and transferring this research are: 1) improved management of existing sagebrush steppe for a variety of uses including forage production and habitat for critical wildlife species, 2) increased probability of success for restoration/ revegetation projects, 3) increased ability to determine the effects of management practices within complex landscapes, and 4) a better understanding of the role of climate and site factors in influencing site productivity and restoration/revegetation success. This is the final report for project 2070-21630-001-00D, which has been replaced by project 2070-21630-002-00D, "Restoring and Managing Great Basin Ecosystems." For Objective 1, ARS scientists joined with Oregon State University, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and other university partners in a three state effort to evaluate dormant season cattle grazing as a fuels management tool and as a tool for increasing perennial bunchgrasses on exotic annual grass-prone sagebrush rangeland. ARS scientists completed a study assessing successional dynamics spanning 25 years following juniper cutting. Results from this study indicate juniper cutting increased forage yield eight-fold compared to uncut woodland but that control of invasive exotic annual grasses may be necessary following cutting. This research resulted in a peer review publication and results are being used by land management agencies (BLM and U.S. Forest Service) in Oregon, California, and Idaho for Environmental Impact Statements and Ecological Assessments, and for developing juniper control practices and by ranchers treating private property and applying for range improvement grants. Research on management of crested wheatgrass monocultures was completed and published. This work provides critical information for land managers to guide management of crested wheatgrass stands to meet various objectives, including increasing cover of native vegetation and maintaining forage production. For Objective 2, ARS scientists partnered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The Nature Conservancy, and private industry to develop an ecologically-based decision-support system for management of sage- grouse habitat. This system is currently in operation on approximately five million acres of private, state, and federal lands in Oregon and ARS researchers are currently consulting with BLM and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service partners for use of this decision-support system in Idaho. For Objective 3, research was completed and published detailing the effects of biotic and abiotic environmental variables on seeding success for big sagebrush. This work is being used by the BLM to inform post-fire and post-juniper treatment seeding plans on millions of acres of rangeland in southeast Oregon and adjoining states. Research on seed amendment technologies is continuing and expanding. Working cooperatively with The Nature Conservancy and Brigham Young University, ARS scientists published a paper detailing the potential benefits of seed amendment technologies, and initiated new research to determine the efficacy of different compounds as hydrophobic seed coatings. Research was completed and scientific journal articles were published detailing the use of carbon-based seed amendments to limit impacts of herbicides on seeded species. Additional grant funds were secured through the BLM to hire a graduate student to further develop seed technologies that allow for simultaneous application of seeding treatments and pre-emergent herbicide. Research on the use of post-fire soil color to predict mortality of perennial bunchgrasses was completed and published in scientific journals. This work serves as a baseline for informing allocation of limited post- fire restoration resources, an issue that can annually effect hundreds of thousands of rangeland acres in Oregon alone. Accomplishments 01 Revegetation of exotic annual grass-invaded rangelands would be improved if desired species could be seeded simultaneously with pre- emergent herbicide control of exotic annuals. However, herbicide damage to seeded vegetation has limited this approach and thus desired vegetation is often seeded one year after herbicide application. Success of seeding at this time can be limited as exotic annual grasses are starting to reinvade the treated area. ARS scientists in Burns, Oregon investigated the effects of using activated carbon pellets surrounding seed to allow desired vegetation to be seeded at the same time that exotic annual grasses are controlled with a pre-emergent herbicide. They determined that activated carbon pellets could be used to prevent herbicide damage to vegetation seeded when annual grasses were controlled with a pre-emergent herbicide. This work suggests that activated carbon pellets could be used to seed desired species simultaneously with pre-emergent herbicide control of exotic annuals and is the first field test of this technology.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Madsen, M.D., Hulet, A., Phillips, K., Staley, J.L., Davies, K.W., Svejcar, A.J. 2016. Extruded seed pellets: a novel approach to enhancing sagebrush seedling emergence. Native Plant Journal. 17(3):230-243.
Svejcar, T., Boyd, C.S., Davies, K.W., Hamerlynck, E.P., Svejcar, L. 2017. Challenges and limitations to native species restoration in the Great Basin, USA. Plant Ecology. 218:81-94. doi: 10.1007/s11258-016-0648-z.
Boyd, C.S., Kerby, J., Svejcar, T., Bates, J.D., Johnson, D., Davies, K.W. 2017. The sage-grouse habitat mortgage: effective conifer management in space and time. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 70(1):141-148. doi:10. 1016/j.rama.2016.08.012.
Boyd, C.S., Davies, K.W., Hulet, A. 2015. Predicting fire-based perennial bunchgrass mortality in low elevation big sagebrush plant communities. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 24:527-533.
Boyd, C.S., Davies, K.W., Collins, G.H. 2017. Impacts of feral horse use on riparian vegetation within the sagebrush steppe. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 70:411-417.
Davies, K.W., Bates, J.D. 2017. Restoring big sagebrush after controlling encroaching western juniper with fire: aspect and subspecies effects. Restoration Ecology. 25:33-41.
Bates, J.D., Svejcar, A., Miller, R., Davies, K.W. 2017. Plant community dynamics 25 years after juniper control. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 70(3):356-362. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2016.11.003.
Davies, K.W., Gearhart, A., Boyd, C.S., Bates, J.D. 2017. Fall and spring grazing influence fire ignitability and initial spread in shrub steppe communities. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 26:485-490.
Davies, K.W., Madsen, M.D., Hulet, A. 2017. Using activated carbon to limit herbicide effects to seeded bunchgrass when revegetating annual grass-invaded rangelands. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 70:604-608.
Bates, J.D., Davies, K.W. 2017. Effects of conifer treatments on soil nutrient availability and plant composition in sagebrush steppe. Forest Ecology and Management. 400:631-644.
Bates, J.D., Davies, K.W., Hulet, A., Miller, R.F., Roundy, B. 2017. Sage- grouse groceries: forb response to pinon-juniper treatments. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 70:106-115.
Davies, K.W., Gearhart, A.L., Vavra, M., Schultz, B.W., Rimbey, N. 2016. Longer term rest from grazing: a response to Jones & Carter. Journal of Rangeland Applications. 3:9-15.
Schantz, M.C., Sheley, R.L., James, J.J., Hamerlynck, E.P. 2016. Role of dispersal timing and frequency in annual grass-invaded Great Basin ecosystems: how modifying seeding strategies increases restoration success. Western North American Naturalist. 76(1):36-52. doi: 10.3398/064.076.0106.
Bansal, S., Sheley, R.L., Blank, R.R., Vasquez, E. 2014. Plant litter effects on soil nutrient availability and vegetation dynamics: changes that occur when annual grasses invade shrub-steppe communities. Plant Ecology. 215:367-378. doi: 10.1007/s11258-014-0307-1.
Boyd, C.S., Davies, K.W., Lemos, J.A. 2017. The influence of soil color on seedbed microclimate and seedling demographics of a perennial bunchgrass. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 70:621-624.
Williams, C.J., Pierson, F.B., Spaeth, K., Brown, J., Al-Hamdan, O., Weltz, M.A., Nearing, M.A., Herrick, J.E., Boll, J., Robichaud, P.R., Goodrich, D.C., Heilman, P., Guertin, D.P., Hernandez Narvaez, M.N., Wei, H., Polyakov, V.O., Armendariz, G.A., Nouwakpo, S.K., Hardegree, S.P., Clark, P., Strand, E.K., Bates, J.D., Metz, L.J., Nichols, M.H. 2017. Application of ecological site information to transformative changes on Great Basin sagebrush rangelands. Rangelands. 38(6):379-388.

Progress 10/01/15 to 09/30/16

Outputs
Progress Report Objectives (from AD-416): 1) Develop practices and strategies for restoring perennial livestock forages on degraded and fire-prone Great Basin rangelands using combinations of grazing management, soil treatments, seed coatings, and traditional restoration techniques. 2) Develop decision-support tools to enhance livestock production and other ecosystem services in different sites, climate conditions, and management systems on northwestern rangelands. Approach (from AD-416): The mission of the Burns unit is to provide the science for sound land and livestock management. This five-year plan builds on a rich history of research at this location, in some cases reaching back to the 1940's. The majority of the western U.S. is occupied by rangelands and the most efficient commodity production in the rangeland environment is grazing livestock. Sustainable management of western U.S. rangelands is facing threats of unprecedented scale from annual grass invasion, encroaching conifers, and an uncertain climate future. Simultaneously, the societal demand for a diversity of ecosystem services from these resources has increased dramatically in recent years. Producers and land managers in the western U.S. are faced with information gaps regarding plant community restoration and establishment of desired species, management of grazing livestock, and vegetation responses to management actions in spatially and temporally variable environments. Filling these information gaps is critical to maintaining the security of livestock forage across the western U.S. During the next five years we will build on our prior research addressing issues critical to our understanding and management of sagebrush steppe rangeland. Our focus will be on 1) developing management practices and tools for restoring/rehabilitating sagebrush steppe following weed invasion and juniper expansion, and 2) developing management guidelines and assessment systems for conserving intact plant communities in a variable environment. Although the problem areas addressed by the Burns location stem from local and regional scale issues, our specific research questions and designs help to illuminate principles applicable to national and international issues and audiences through peer review research and synthesis publications. A focus of this research unit has been to provide tools that managers can use, including but not limited to non-technical research reports, information syntheses, field guides and decision trees. Projected benefits of successfully completing and transferring this research are: 1) improved management of existing sagebrush steppe for a variety of uses including forage production and habitat for critical wildlife species, 2) increased probability of success for restoration/ revegetation projects, 3) increased ability to determine the effects of management practices within complex landscapes, and 4) a better understanding of the role of climate and site factors in influencing site productivity and restoration/revegetation success. This report details progress for the parent Project Number 2070-21630-001- 00D �Restoring and Managing Great Basin Ecosystems.� Objectives covered in this report fall under Component 1 of National Program 215. Substantial progress has been made on all objectives/sub-objectives and all current milestones are fully met. For Objective 1, which focuses on practices and strategies for restoring fire-prone Great Basin rangeland, data collection to determine success of seeded bunchgrasses has been completed and peer-reviewed manuscripts and outreach materials are being prepared. Seed coating research and development has continued at a rapid pace. Working cooperatively with The Nature Conservancy (TNC), ARS completed initial field evaluation of numerous seed enhancement technologies, has expanded to larger scale field trials, published two peer-review publications relating to seedling ecology/restoration, and is analyzing data in preparation for additional publication development. This work has received strong local, regional, and international recognition and has branched into research and development agreements with industry. Seed enhancement work was featured on an episode of the Oregon Public Broadcasting television show, Oregon Field Guide, and has been reported on National Public Radio. Additional grant funds from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) were secured to update seed ecology lab facilities. Data collection continues on evaluating livestock grazing effects on fuels in native sagebrush steppe and exotic annual grass invaded-communities and has resulted in four scientific journal articles in 2016. Various grant funds to hire a post-doc to broaden this research were secured. Short�term results of the effects of different seed mixes after annual grass control resulted in several publications. Data collection continues on evaluating the long- term effects of various seed mixes after annual grass control treatments. This work was expanded with grant funds from the ODFW and Crooked River National Grasslands. For Objective 2, data collection on western juniper control practices was completed and scientists from Burns, Oregon were invited to author or co-author three papers (papers have been written and submitted) in a special issue of the peer-review journal, Rangeland Ecology and Management, dedicated to conifer management in sage-grouse habitat. Data collection continues to determine the efficacy of grazing management as a tool to reduce exotic annual grass invasion and to improve understanding of the relationships between site characteristics, climate, and long-term productivity and diversity of sagebrush plant communities. Research on evaluating grazing management practices using remotely sensed data resulted in one peer-reviewed journal publication. Scientists from Burns, Oregon authored four management �Factsheets� published through a collaborative effort between the Joint Fire Science Program, the Great Basin Fire Science Exchange, The Great Basin Research and Management Partnership, and the Great Basin Landscape Conservation Cooperative. Accomplishments 01 Exotic annual grasses are now present on nearly 100 million acres of western U.S. Rangeland. Invasion by exotic annual grasses increases the amount of highly flammable fine fuels and this increases the amount of rangeland burned in wildfires leading to loss of livestock forage, degraded wildlife habitat, dramatically increased risk to human safety, and further expansion of annual grasses. Most of the effort to mitigate the loss of native plant communities to annual grass invasion has been in the form of post-fire plant community restoration, but, these practices have experienced only limited success. ARS scientists in Burns, Oregon found through multiple published studies that pre-fire management of fuel loads can be used to decrease loss of desired native plants during fire. This information was used as the basis of a synthesis article in the peer-review journal Rangeland Ecology and Management that proposed a model and research-framework for using pre- fire fuels management (including livestock grazing) to decrease mortality of desired native plants during wildfires and reduce reliance on marginal post-fire seeding practices. This work provides ranchers and public land managers with a defensible justification for engaging in preemptive fuels management and serves as a framework for identifying key research questions to guide future studies.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Hulet, A., Boyd, C.S., Davies, K.W., Svejcar, A.J. 2015. Prefire (preemptive) management to decrease fire-induced bunchgrass mortality and reduce reliance on postfire seeding. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 68(6):437-444. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015.08.001.
Davies, K.W., Boyd, C.S., Bates, J.D., Hulet, A. 2016. Winter grazing can reduce wildfire size, intensity, and behavior in a shrub-grassland. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 25:191-199. doi: 10.1071/WF15055.
Bates, J.D., Davies, K.W. 2015. Seasonal burning of juniper woodlands and spatial recovery of herbaceous vegetation. Forest Ecology and Management. 361:117-130. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.10.045.
Davies, K.W., Boyd, C.S., Bates, J.D., Hulet, A. 2016. Winter grazing decreases the probability of fire-induced mortality of bunchgrasses and may reduce wildfire size: a response to Smith et al (this issue). International Journal of Wildland Fire. 25:489-493. doi: 10.1071/WF15209.
Davies, K.W., Nafus, A.M., Boyd, C.S., Hulet, A., Bates, J.D. 2016. Effects of using winter grazing as a fuel treatment on Wyoming big sagebrush plant communities. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 69:179-184. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015.12.005.
Davies, K.W., Bates, J.D., Boyd, C.S. 2016. Effects of intermediate-term grazing rest on sagebrush communities with depleted understories: evidence of a threshold. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 69:173-178. doi: 10.1016/ j.rama.2016.01.002.
Davies, K.W., Bates, J.D., Boyd, C.S., Svejcar, A.J. 2016. Pre-fire grazing by cattle increases postfire resistance to exotic annual grass (Bromus tectorum) invasion and dominance for decades. Ecology and Evolution. 6(10):3356-3366. doi: 10.1002/ece3.2127.
Sheley, R.L., Boyd, C.S., Dobrowolski, J., Hardegree, S.P., James, J., Mangold, J. 2016. Editorial: a scientifically rigorous and user-friendly Rangeland Ecology & Management. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 69(1):1- 3. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015.10.013.
Davies, K.W., Boyd, C.S., Bates, J.D., Hulet, A. 2015. Dormant season grazing may decrease wildfire probability by increasing fuel moisture and reducing fuel amount and continuity. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 24(6):849-856. doi: 10.1071/WF14209.
Williams, C.J., Pierson Jr, F.B., Spaeth, K.E., Brown, J.R., Al-Hamdan, O. Z., Weltz, M.A., Nearing, M.A., Herrick, J.E., Boll, J., Robichaud, P.R., Goodrich, D.C., Heilman, P., Guertin, P.D., Hernandez, M., Wei, H., Hardegree, S.P., Strand, E.K., Bates, J.D., Metz, L., Nichols, M.H. 2016. Incorporating hydrologic data and ecohydrologic relationships in ecological site descriptions. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 69:4-19.
Hamerlynck, E.P., Sheley, R.L., Davies, K.W., Svejcar, A.J. 2016. Postdefoliation ecosystem carbon and water flux and canopy growth dynamics in sagebrush steppe bunchgrass. Ecosphere. 7(7):1-21. doi: 10.1002/ecs2. 1376.
Boyd, C.S., Lemos, J.A. 2015. Evaluating winter/spring seeding of a native perennial bunchgrass in the sagebrush steppe. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 68(6):494-500. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015.07.009.
Nafus, A.M., Svejcar, A.J., Davies, K.W. 2016. Disturbance history, management, and seeding year precipitation influences vegetation characteristics of crested wheatgrass stands. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 69(4):249-256. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2016.03.003.
Hamerlynck, E.P., Smith, B., Sheley, R.L., Svejcar, A.J. 2016. Compensatory photosynthesis, water-use efficiency, and biomass allocation of defoliated exotic and native bunchgrass seedlings. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 69(3):206-214. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015.12.007.
Svejcar, A.J., Angell, R.F., James, J. 2016. Spatial and temporal variability in minimum temperature trends in the western U.S. sagebrush steppe. Journal of Arid Environments. 133:125-133. doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv. 2016.06.003.
Madsen, M.D., Davies, K.W., Boyd, C.S., Kerby, J.D., Svejcar, A.J. 2016. Emerging seed enhancement technologies for overcoming barriers to restoration. Restoration Ecology. 64(S2):S77-S84. doi: 10.1111/rec.12332.

Progress 10/01/14 to 09/30/15

Outputs
Progress Report Objectives (from AD-416): 1) Develop practices and strategies for restoring perennial livestock forages on degraded and fire-prone Great Basin rangelands using combinations of grazing management, soil treatments, seed coatings, and traditional restoration techniques. 2) Develop decision-support tools to enhance livestock production and other ecosystem services in different sites, climate conditions, and management systems on northwestern rangelands. Approach (from AD-416): The mission of the Burns unit is to provide the science for sound land and livestock management. This five-year plan builds on a rich history of research at this location, in some cases reaching back to the 1940's. The majority of the western U.S. is occupied by rangelands and the most efficient commodity production in the rangeland environment is grazing livestock. Sustainable management of western U.S. rangelands is facing threats of unprecedented scale from annual grass invasion, encroaching conifers, and an uncertain climate future. Simultaneously, the societal demand for a diversity of ecosystem services from these resources has increased dramatically in recent years. Producers and land managers in the western U.S. are faced with information gaps regarding plant community restoration and establishment of desired species, management of grazing livestock, and vegetation responses to management actions in spatially and temporally variable environments. Filling these information gaps is critical to maintaining the security of livestock forage across the western U.S. During the next five years we will build on our prior research addressing issues critical to our understanding and management of sagebrush steppe rangeland. Our focus will be on 1) developing management practices and tools for restoring/rehabilitating sagebrush steppe following weed invasion and juniper expansion, and 2) developing management guidelines and assessment systems for conserving intact plant communities in a variable environment. Although the problem areas addressed by the Burns location stem from local and regional scale issues, our specific research questions and designs help to illuminate principles applicable to national and international issues and audiences through peer review research and synthesis publications. A focus of this research unit has been to provide tools that managers can use, including but not limited to non-technical research reports, information syntheses, field guides and decision trees. Projected benefits of successfully completing and transferring this research are: 1) improved management of existing sagebrush steppe for a variety of uses including forage production and habitat for critical wildlife species, 2) increased probability of success for restoration/ revegetation projects, 3) increased ability to determine the effects of management practices within complex landscapes, and 4) a better understanding of the role of climate and site factors in influencing site productivity and restoration/revegetation success. This report details progress for 2070-21630-001-00D �Restoring and Managing Great Basin Ecosystems�. Objectives covered in this report fall under Component 1 of National Program 215. Substantial progress has been made on all objectives/sub-objectives and all current milestones are fully met. For Objective 1, which focuses on practices and strategies for restoring fire-prone Great Basin rangeland, data collection to determine success of seeded bunchgrasses has been completed and we are analyzing data in preparation for developing peer review manuscripts and outreach materials. Seed coating research and development has continued at a rapid pace. Working cooperatively with The Nature Conservancy, ARS completed initial field evaluation of numerous seed enhancement technologies and is analyzing data in preparation for publication development. This work has received strong local, regional, and international recognition and has branched into research and development agreements with Industry. Seed enhancement work will be featured on an upcoming episode of the Oregon Public Broadcasting television show, Oregon Field Guide, and has been reported on National Public Radio. Data collection continues on evaluating moderate livestock grazing effects on fuels in native sagebrush steppe and exotic annual grass invaded-communities and has resulted in two scientific journal articles in the past year. We have secured various grant funds and are in the process of hiring two post- docs to broaden fire/grazing research. Data collection for field research comparing mechanical and herbicide control of annual grasses prior to seeding has been completed and data are being analyzed in preparation for publication submission. Data collection continues on evaluating use of various seed mixes after annual grass control treatments and has resulted in several publications in the past year. This work has expanded with grant funds from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. For Objective 2, we are in the final stages of writing management guidelines for sagebrush steppe plant communities. This effort represents a cooperative partnership between ARS Burns, The Nature Conservancy, and Oregon State University. We have received substantial interest from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Natural Resources Conservation Service for using these guidelines to plan management activities for greater sage-grouse in Oregon. Additionally, the framework for our "management effects" database is complete and has been Beta tested with favorable reviews from a variety of management entities. We are continuing work to populate the database with all relevant peer review journal articles pertaining to the northern Great Basin ecoregion. ARS scientists from Burns, Oregon, served as invited authors for four management �Factsheets� published through a collaborative effort between the Joint Fire Science Program, the Great Basin Fire Science Exchange, The Great Basin Research and Management Partnership, and the Great Basin Landscape Conservation Cooperative. Accomplishments 01 Overcoming perennial bunchgrass seedling mortality. Invasion of sagebrush habitat by non-native annual grass species impacts about 60 million acres of western U.S. rangeland. These species increase wildfire frequency, which dramatically reduces livestock forage resources, eliminates habitat for sagebrush obligate wildlife species such as sage-grouse, and costs taxpayers an estimated $3.0 billion a year in fire suppression activities. Replanting of burned areas with desired perennial bunchgrasses is the most promising management action, however, seeding success is extremely low. ARS scientists from Burns, Oregon, determined that 1) seeded perennial grasses typically germinate in fall, and 2) fall-germinated seedlings generally experience very high (up to 100%) freeze-associated overwinter mortality. To address this problem, we worked with private industry and The Nature Conservancy to develop a hydrophobic seed coating that delays germination of seeds until spring, dramatically decreasing seedling mortality. Initial field results indicated dramatic improvement over un- coated seeds and large scale field testing is scheduled for this fall.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Johnson, D.D., Davies, K.W. 2015. Effects of integrating mowing and imazapyr application on African rue (Peganum harmala) and native perennial grasses. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(4):617-623. doi: 10.1614/ IPSM-D-13-00019.1.
Davies, K.W., Madsen, M.D., Nafus, A.M., Boyd, C.S., Johnson, D.D. 2014. Can imazapic and seeding be applied simultaneously to rehabilitate medusahead-invaded rangeland? Single vs. multiple entry. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 67(6):650-656. doi: 10.2111/REM-D-14-00019.1.
Davies, K.W., Collins, G., Boyd, C.S. 2014. Effects of feral free-roaming horses on semi-arid rangeland ecosystems: an example from the sagebrush steppe. Ecosphere. 5(10):127. doi: 10.1890/ES14-00171.1.
Bates, J.D., O'Connor, R., Davies, K.W. 2014. Vegetation recovery and fuel reduction after seasonal burning of western juniper. Fire Ecology. 10(3) :27-48. doi: 10.4996/fireecology.1003027.
Nafus, A.M., Svejcar, A.J., Ganskopp, D.C., Davies, K.W. 2015. Abundances of coplanted native bunchgrasses and crested wheatgrass after 13 years. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 68(2):211-214. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015. 01.011.
Davies, K.W., Boyd, C.S., Johnson, D.D., Nafus, A.M., Madsen, M.D. 2015. Success of seeding native compared with introduced perennial vegetation for revegetating medusahead-invaded sagebrush rangeland. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 68:224-230. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015.03.004.
Madsen, M.D., Zvirzdin, D.L., Petersen, S.L., Hopkins, B.G., Roundy, B.A. 2015. Anchor chaining�s influence on soil hydrology and seeding success in burned pi�on-juniper woodlands. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 68(3) :231-240. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2015.03.010.
Gornish, E.S., Aanderud, Z.T., Sheley, R.L., Rinella, M.J., Svejcar, A.J., Englund, S.D., James, J.J. 2015. Altered snowfall and soil disturbance influence the early life stage transitions and recruitment of a native and invasive grass in a cold desert. Oecologia. 177:595-606. doi: 10.1007/ s00442-014-3180-7.
Svejcar, A.J., James, J.J., Hardegree, S.P., Sheley, R.L. 2014. Incorporating plant mortality and recruitment into rangeland management and assessment. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 67:603-613. doi: 10.2111/ REM-D-13-00102.1.
Svejcar, A.J. 2015. The northern Great Basin: a region of continual change. Rangelands. 37(3):114-118. doi: 10.1016/j.rala.2015.03.002.
Rodhouse, T.J., Irvine, K.M., Sheley, R.L., Smith, B.S., Hoh, S., Esposito, D., Mata-Gonzalez, R. 2014. Predicting foundation bunchgrass species abundances: model-assisted decision-making in protected-area sagebrush steppe. Ecosphere. 5(9):1-16.
Davies, K.W., Bates, J.D. 2014. Attempting to restore herbaceous understories in Wyoming big sagebrush communities with mowing and seeding. Restoration Ecology. 22:608-615.
Johnson, D.D., Davies, K.W. 2012. An introduction to using ecological site descriptions as a management tool. CL598. In: Adams, J.R., editor. Cattle Producers Handbook. 3rd Edition. Moscow, ID: Cattlemen Producer's Library. p.1-4.
Boyd, C.S., Beck, J.L., Tanaka, J.A. 2014. Livestock grazing and sage- grouse habitat: impacts and opportunities. Journal of Rangeland Applications. 1:58-77.
James, J.J., Boyd, C.S., Svejcar, A.J. 2013. Seed and seedling ecology research as the foundation for enhancing restoration outcomes. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 66(2):115-116.
Boyd, C.S., Petersen, S., Gilgert, W., Rodgers, R., Fuhlendorf, S., Larsen, R., Wolfe, D., Jensen, K., Gonzales, P., Nenneman, M., Danvir, R., Dahlgren, D., Messmer, T. 2011. Looking toward a brighter future for lekking grouse. Rangelands. 33(6):2-11. doi: 10.2111/1551-501X-33.6.2.
Leffler, A.J., James, J.J., Monaco, T.A., Sheley, R.L. 2015. A new perspective on trait differences between native and invasive exotic plants: reply to critique. Ecology. 96(4):1152-1153.

Progress 10/01/13 to 09/30/14

Outputs
Progress Report Objectives (from AD-416): 1) Develop practices and strategies for restoring perennial livestock forages on degraded and fire-prone Great Basin rangelands using combinations of grazing management, soil treatments, seed coatings, and traditional restoration techniques. 2) Develop decision-support tools to enhance livestock production and other ecosystem services in different sites, climate conditions, and management systems on northwestern rangelands. Approach (from AD-416): The mission of the Burns unit is to provide the science for sound land and livestock management. This five-year plan builds on a rich history of research at this location, in some cases reaching back to the 1940's. The majority of the western U.S. is occupied by rangelands and the most efficient commodity production in the rangeland environment is grazing livestock. Sustainable management of western U.S. rangelands is facing threats of unprecedented scale from annual grass invasion, encroaching conifers, and an uncertain climate future. Simultaneously, the societal demand for a diversity of ecosystem services from these resources has increased dramatically in recent years. Producers and land managers in the western U.S. are faced with information gaps regarding plant community restoration and establishment of desired species, management of grazing livestock, and vegetation responses to management actions in spatially and temporally variable environments. Filling these information gaps is critical to maintaining the security of livestock forage across the western U.S. During the next five years we will build on our prior research addressing issues critical to our understanding and management of sagebrush steppe rangeland. Our focus will be on 1) developing management practices and tools for restoring/rehabilitating sagebrush steppe following weed invasion and juniper expansion, and 2) developing management guidelines and assessment systems for conserving intact plant communities in a variable environment. Although the problem areas addressed by the Burns location stem from local and regional scale issues, our specific research questions and designs help to illuminate principles applicable to national and international issues and audiences through peer review research and synthesis publications. A focus of this research unit has been to provide tools that managers can use, including but not limited to non-technical research reports, information syntheses, field guides and decision trees. Projected benefits of successfully completing and transferring this research are: 1) improved management of existing sagebrush steppe for a variety of uses including forage production and habitat for critical wildlife species, 2) increased probability of success for restoration/ revegetation projects, 3) increased ability to determine the effects of management practices within complex landscapes, and 4) a better understanding of the role of climate and site factors in influencing site productivity and restoration/revegetation success. This report details progress for the parent Project Number 5360-21630-001- 00D �Restoring and Managing Great Basin Ecosystems�. Objectives covered in this report fall under Component 1 of National Program 215. Substantial progress has been made on all objectives/sub-objectives and all current milestones are fully met. For Objective 1, which focuses on practices and strategies for restoring fire-prone Great Basin rangeland, we are in the final year of field data collection to evaluate success of seeded bunchgrasses. Seed coating work continues to expand with grant monies generated through a cooperative relationship with The Nature Conservancy. This work has garnered international attention and has resulted in numerous publications as well as an invited presentation to the International Grassland Congress. Interest in this technology is anticipated to increase even more with the severe 2014 wildfire season. Data collection continues on research to control annual grasses and grass fuels using grazing, chemical, and mechanical treatments and has resulted in multiple peer reviewed manuscripts. Data collection is on schedule for research evaluating effectiveness of western juniper control practices. Objective 2 relates to developing decision support tools for enhancing livestock production and ecosystem services. The initial phase of research to evaluate the effects of post-fire grazing in sagebrush plant communities has been completed and resulted in a peer reviewed manuscript. Working with our Nature Conservancy partners we recently received substantial outside funding to expand ongoing work to document existing knowledge of the effectiveness of a wide variety of management practices. This project is combining results from peer review research and expert opinions from practitioners to develop a database that can be used to query the effectiveness of management practices for increasing livestock production and meeting other ecosystem services expectations under variable environmental conditions. The database is being linked with vegetation state-and-transition models that provide a summary view of the role of management in influencing vegetation change. Data collection to link climate and site conditions to vegetation potential continues as scheduled. Significant Activities that Support Special Target Populations: ARS scientists at Burns, Oregon, have participated in outreach activities targeted for a number of different audiences in FY14. This outreach has included events ranging from workshops, field days and youth range camps that have reached over 500 individuals. These events can potentially benefit small farms, ranching families, and holders of grazing allotments on public land by 1) maintaining the quality and quantity of the forage base and 2) by increasing the profitability of pasture and hay production. Scientists delivered instruction and provided hands-on activities related to plant identification, soil erosion, invasive species management, wildlife habitat and grazing management to students from elementary to college age as well as producers and land managers. Accomplishments 01 Winter grazing reduces wildfire risk. Wildfire protection and suppression costs taxpayers more than $3.0 billion a year. During 2012, a record was set for total acres of rangeland burned by wildfire in eastern Oregon. West wide, in the last 15 years, 7 of the 11 western states have experienced their largest wildfires since European settlement. Much of the area being burned is prime habitat for sage- grouse and these fires have created severe hardships for ranchers in the region because of loss of forage. Research by ARS scientists in Burns, Oregon, demonstrated that winter grazing by livestock could be used to reduce the period of wildfire risk from three months to less than one month by altering abundance and moisture content of fuels. This information will help both private and public land managers develop strategies to reduce wildfire risk on rangelands.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Bates, J.D., Sharp, R.N., Davies, K.W. 2013. Sagebrush steppe recovery after fire varies by development phase of Juniperus occidentalis woodland. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 23:117-130.
Boyd, C.S., Obradovich, M. 2014. Is pile seeding Wyoming big sagebrush(Artemisia tridentata subsp. wyomingensis) an effective alternative to broadcast seeding?. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 67(3) :292-297. DOI: 10.2111/REM-D-13-00107.1.
Davies, K.W., Boyd, C.S., Nafus, A.M. 2013. Restoring the sagebrush component in crested wheatgrass dominated communities. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 66(4):472-478.
Madsen, M.D., Davies, K.W., Boyd, C.S., Kerby, J.D., Carter, D.L., Svejcar, A.J. 2013. Restoring North America's sagebrush steppe ecosystem using seed enhancement technologies. Proceedings of the 22nd International Grasslands Congress. p. 393-401.
Davies, K.W., Johnson, D.D., Nafus, A.M. 2014. Restoration of exotic annual grass-invaded rangelands: importance of seed mix composition. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(2):247-256. DOI: 10.1614/IPSM-D- 12-00093.1.
Nafus, A.M., Davies, K.W. 2014. Medusahead ecology and management: California annual grasslands to the intermountain west. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(2):210-221. DOI: 10.1614/IPSM-D-13-00077.1.
Hulet, A., Roundy, B.A., Petersen, S.L., Jensen, R.R., Bunting, S.C. 2014. An object-based image analysis of pinyon and juniper woodlands treated to reduce fuels. Environmental Management. 53:660-671.
Hulet, A., Roundy, B.A., Petersen, S.L., Jensen, R.R., Bunting, S.C. 2014. Cover estimations using object-based image analysis rule sets developed across multiple scales in pinyon-juniper woodlands. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 67(3):318-327. DOI: 10.2111/REM-D-12-00154.1.
Madsen, M.D., Coronel, E.G., Hopkins, B.G. 2013. Soil surfactant products for improving hydrologic function in post-fire water repellent soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 77:1825-1830.
Archer, S.R., Davies, K.W., Fulbright, T.E., Mcdaniel, K.C., Wilcox, B.P., Predick, K.I. 2011. Brush management as a rangeland conservation strategy: A critical evaluation. In: Briske,D.D., editor. Conservation benefits of rangeland practices: Assessment, recommendations, and knowledge gaps. Washington, DC:USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. p. 105-170.
Madsen, M.D., Zvirzdin, D.L., Roundy, B.A., Kostka, S.J. 2014. Improving reseeding success after catastrophic wildfire with surfactant seed coating technology. American Society for Testing and Materials. 33:44-55. DOI: 10. 1520/STP156920120181.
George, M.R., Jackson, R.D., Boyd, C.S., Tate, K.W. 2011. A scientific assessment of the effectiveness of riparian management practices. In: Briske, D.D., editor. Conservation Benefits of Rangeland Practices. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. p. 213-252.
Havstad, K.M., Peters, D.C., Allen-Diaz, B., Bartolome, J., Bestelmeyer, B. T., Briske, D., Brown, J., Brunson, M., Herrick, J.E., Huntsinger, L., Johnson, P., Joyce, L., Pieper, R., Svejcar, A.J., Yao, J. 2009. The western United States rangeland, a major resource. In: Wedin, W.F, Fales, S.L. editors. Grassland quietness and strength for a new American agriculture. Madison, WI:American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Crop Science Society of America, Inc., Soil Science Society of America, Inc. p.75-93.
Boyd, C.S., Johnson, D.D., Kerby, J.D., Svejcar, A.J., Davies, K.W. 2014. Of grouse and golden eggs: Can ecosystems be managed within a species- based regulatory framework?. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 67:358-368. DOI: 10.2111/REM-D-13-00096.1.
Bates, J.D., Davies, K.W. 2014. Cattle grazing and vegetation succession on burned sagebrush steppe. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 67:412-422. DOI: 10.2111/REM-D-14-00011.1.
Davies, K.W., Bates, J.D., Madsen, M.D., Nafus, A.M. 2014. Restoration of mountain big sagebrush steppe following prescibed burning to control western juniper. Environmental Management. 53:1015-1022. DOI: 10.1007/ s00267-014-0255-5
Madsen, M.D., Davies, K.W., Mummey, D.L., Svejcar, A.J. 2014. Improving restoration of exotic annual grass-invaded rangelands through activated carbon seed enhancement technologies. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 67(1):61-67.
Svejcar, A.J., Boyd, C.S., Davies, K.W., Madsen, M.D., Bates, J.D., Sheley, R.L., Marlow, C., Bohnert, D., Borman, M., Mata-Gonzalez, R., Buckhouse, J., Stringham, T., Perryman, B., Swanson, S., Tate, K., George, M., Ruyle, G., Roundy, B., Call, C., Jensen, K.B., Launchbaugh, K., Gearhart, A., Vermeire, L.T., Tanaka, J., Derner, J.D., Frasier, G.W., Havstad, K.M. 2014. Western land managers will need all available tools for adapting to climate change, including grazing: A critique of Beschta et al. Environmental Management. 53:1035-1038. DOI: 10.1007/s00267-013-0218-2.
Davies, K.W., Bates, J.D., Boyd, C.S., Nafus, A.M. 2014. Is fire exclusion in mountain big sagebrush communities prudent? Soil nutrient, plant diversity, and arthropod response to burning. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 23:417-424. DOI: 10.1071/WF13167.
Davies, K.W., Vavra, M., Schultz, B.W., Rimbey, N. 2014. Implications of longer term rest from grazing in the sagebrush steppe. Journal of Rangeland Applications. 1:14-34.

Progress 10/01/12 to 09/30/13

Outputs
Progress Report Objectives (from AD-416): 1) Develop practices and strategies for restoring perennial livestock forages on degraded and fire-prone Great Basin rangelands using combinations of grazing management, soil treatments, seed coatings, and traditional restoration techniques. 2) Develop decision-support tools to enhance livestock production and other ecosystem services in different sites, climate conditions, and management systems on northwestern rangelands. Approach (from AD-416): The mission of the Burns unit is to provide the science for sound land and livestock management. This five-year plan builds on a rich history of research at this location, in some cases reaching back to the 1940's. The majority of the western U.S. is occupied by rangelands and the most efficient commodity production in the rangeland environment is grazing livestock. Sustainable management of western U.S. rangelands is facing threats of unprecedented scale from annual grass invasion, encroaching conifers, and an uncertain climate future. Simultaneously, the societal demand for a diversity of ecosystem services from these resources has increased dramatically in recent years. Producers and land managers in the western U.S. are faced with information gaps regarding plant community restoration and establishment of desired species, management of grazing livestock, and vegetation responses to management actions in spatially and temporally variable environments. Filling these information gaps is critical to maintaining the security of livestock forage across the western U.S. During the next five years we will build on our prior research addressing issues critical to our understanding and management of sagebrush steppe rangeland. Our focus will be on 1) developing management practices and tools for restoring/rehabilitating sagebrush steppe following weed invasion and juniper expansion, and 2) developing management guidelines and assessment systems for conserving intact plant communities in a variable environment. Although the problem areas addressed by the Burns location stem from local and regional scale issues, our specific research questions and designs help to illuminate principles applicable to national and international issues and audiences through peer review research and synthesis publications. A focus of this research unit has been to provide tools that managers can use, including but not limited to non-technical research reports, information syntheses, field guides and decision trees. Projected benefits of successfully completing and transferring this research are: 1) improved management of existing sagebrush steppe for a variety of uses including forage production and habitat for critical wildlife species, 2) increased probability of success for restoration/ revegetation projects, 3) increased ability to determine the effects of management practices within complex landscapes, and 4) a better understanding of the role of climate and site factors in influencing site productivity and restoration/revegetation success. This report documents progress for the parent Project Number 5360-21630- 001-00D "Restoring and Managing Great Basin Ecosystems" and continues research from Project Number 5360-11630-006-00D "Rangeland Restoration and Management." Substantial progress has been made on all objectives/ sub-objectives and all current milestones fully met. The objectives covered in this report fall under Component 1 of National Program 215. For Objective 1, which focuses on the restoration of degraded plant communities, work continues to address the relationship between environmental variability and seeding success. We have published multiple manuscripts on this topic and current research is progressing as planned. Our seed coating work is steadily expanding via grant monies obtained through cooperative work with The Nature Conservancy and has already produced multiple publications. Customer interest in this technology is very high and getting stronger with increased need for effective restoration treatments following the devastating 2012 fire season (1.2 million acres burned in southeast Oregon and adjoining northern Nevada). We continue to collect data on grazing trials to determine the relationship between livestock grazing and abundance/structure of herbaceous fuels. Work to determine the role of mechanical and chemical- based control practices for invasive annual grasses is progressing as planned. Again, this work is timely and of high interest to customers given the 2012 fire season. Ongoing research to determine best management approaches for controlling expanding native conifer populations continues, along with work on post-conifer control site rehabilitation. Objective 2 is focused on conservation of largely intact plant communities with an emphasis on grazing management. We continue to monitor long-term grazing plots to assess impacts of livestock grazing management on plant community structure and composition, and sage-grouse habitat. Grazing impacts on sage-grouse habitat are of strong topical interest given the upcoming 2015 decision from US Fish and Wildlife on the listing status of sage-grouse. Grazing can also impact riparian areas which are important for wildlife habitat, water quality and as a source of livestock forage. We are currently organizing a large data set from the USDA, Forest Service to help assess the impacts of different grazing strategies on riparian ecosystems. In addition to our grazing research, we are continuing work designed to provide information on climate and environmental influences on productivity of largely intact sagebrush plant communities. This research will provide much needed context to expectations surrounding the potential of these plant communities to produce a variety of ecosystem services. Significant Activities that Support Special Target Populations: ARS scientists in Burns, Oregon, have participated in activities and held several field schools that may potentially benefit small farms, including ranching families and holders of grazing allotments on public land by 1) maintaining the quality and quantity of the forage base, and 2) by increasing the profitability of pasture and hay production. Accomplishments 01 Crested wheatgrass is often used in vegetation restoration and rehabilitation projects because of its high rate of establishment as compared to native perennial bunchgrasses. Once established, reintroduction of native plant species into these crested wheatgrass stands has been largely unsuccessful, limiting their value for many wildlife species. ARS researchers at Burns, Oregon, conducted research that demonstrated crested wheatgrass stands could be diversified by planting sagebrush seedlings. We found that control of crested wheatgrass was not needed for successful establishment of sagebrush, but did increase the growth of sagebrush. Our research represents the first published success in re-introduction of native plant stock into crested wheatgrass communities. Reestablishment of sagebrush in crested wheatgrass communities will increase their value to sagebrush- associated wildlife species, which is particularly important given that the sage-grouse is being considered for listing as an endangered species in an eleven state area of the western US.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Davies, K.W., Nafus, A., Johnson, D.D. 2013. Are early summer wildfires an opportunity to revegetate exotic annual grass-invaded plant communities?. Rangeland Ecology and Management. 66(2):234-240.
Davies, K.W., Nafus, A., Madsen, M.D. 2013. Medusahead invasion along unimproved roads, animal trails, and random transects. Western North American Naturalist. 73:54-59.
Madsen, M.D., Kostka, S.J., Hulet, A., Mackey, B.E., Harrison, M.A., Mcmillan, M.F. 2013. Surfactant seed coating - A strategy to improve turfgrass establishment on water repellent soils. International Symposium on Adjuvants for Agrochemicals. p.205-210.
O'Connor, C., Miller, R., Bates, J.D. 2013. Vegetation response to western juniper slash treatments. Environmental Management. 52:553-566.
Davies, K.W., Nafus, A. 2013. Exotic annual grass alters fuel amounts, continuity and moisture content. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 22:353-358.