Source: UNIV OF MASSACHUSETTS submitted to NRP
RATIONALIZATION OF LIPID NANOPARTICLE FORMATION
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
COMPLETE
Funding Source
AFRI COMPETITIVE GRANT
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
0226986
Grant No.
2011-67021-30160
Cumulative Award Amt.
$379,645.00
Proposal No.
2011-03539
Multistate No.
(N/A)
Project Start Date
Jan 1, 2012
Project End Date
Jun 30, 2016
Grant Year
2012
Program Code
[A1511]- Agriculture Systems and Technology: Nanotechnology for Agricultural and Food Systems
Recipient Organization
UNIV OF MASSACHUSETTS
(N/A)
AMHERST,MA 01003
Performing Department
Food Science
Non Technical Summary
This proposed research would generate quantitative-structure function relationships that could be used by the food industry to design novel delivery systems to encapsulate and protect functional lipids (such as flavors, antimicrobials, -3 fatty acids, and carotenoids) during storage, without adversely affecting their bioavailability. These functional lipids could then be successfully incorporated into a wide range of different food and beverage products. The increased availability of foods enriched with functional lipids could have major health and economic benefits on the nation, by reducing the incidences of diseases such as coronary heart disease, diabetes and cancer.
Animal Health Component
50%
Research Effort Categories
Basic
50%
Applied
50%
Developmental
(N/A)
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
5015010200025%
5015010201025%
5025010200025%
5025010201025%
Knowledge Area
501 - New and Improved Food Processing Technologies; 502 - New and Improved Food Products;

Subject Of Investigation
5010 - Food;

Field Of Science
2010 - Physics; 2000 - Chemistry;
Goals / Objectives
Recent advances have led to new methods of formulating nanoemulsions and new theories to rationalize their fabrication, functionality, and stability, thus enabling the design of food-grade lipid nanoparticles for specific applications. Nevertheless, challenges must be overcome before this knowledge can be transferred to the food industry: the need to fabricate nanoemulsions from food-grade ingredients using economic processing operations; the need to incorporate them into foods without adversely impacting product quality; and, the poor understanding of how to design lipid nanoparticles with specific functional properties. The specific goals are: -Mapping Nanoemulsion Fabrication Methodologies: Experiments will be performed to compare the performance of different methods of fabricating food-grade nanoemulsions, including high- and low-energy homogenization. -Development of Quantitative Structure-Function Relationships for Nanoemulsion Design: QSFR would be developed to relate lipid nanoparticle characteristics (concentration, size, charge, structure) to the physicochemical properties of nanoemulsions. -Demonstration of Practical Utility of Nanoemulsions: The information generated would be used to design and fabricate nanoemulsions for applications in food and beverage products. The expected outputs from the project are listed below: Activities: We will conduct and analyze scientific experiments that will generate important new fundamental and practical insights, as well as training scientists (graduate students and Post-Docs). Services: The knowledge gained from this project will be useful for the food industry for designing and fabricating novel nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for bioactive food components, and will be imparted through scientific presentations and consulting. Products: New knowledge will be generated to enable the fabrication of innovative nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for functional lipids. The work could lead to patent applications and/or license agreements. The project will lead to training of new students and scientists with important skills necessary for the modern food industry. Dissemination: The results of the project will be presented at scientific meetings, meetings with industry, and in peer-reviewed scientific publications.
Project Methods
The following scientific methods and protocols will be used to successfully conduct the project: (1). General Methods A variety of different approaches (both high and low energy) will be investigated as a means of creating nanoemulsions: microfluidization, spontaneous emulsification, emulsion inversion point, and phase inversion temperature. The factors that influence nanoemulsion formation using each method will be systematically investigated so at to optimize fabrication conditions. The charge, size and structure of the resulting nano-sized lipid particles will be characterized by electrophoresis, light scattering, optical profiling, rheology, and microscopy. All experiments will be preformed on triplicate samples and repeated at least two times. The general linear model procedure will be used to test for significance and the Duncan's multiple range test will be used to determine significance between means. (2). Experimental Protocol The following studies will be carried out: (A). The optimum composition and preparation methods for fabricating nanoemulsions will be established using different preparation methods: microfluidization, spontaneous emulsification, emulsion inversion point, and phase inversion temperature (B). The influence of system composition and preparation route on the physicochemical properties of the lipid nanoparticles produced will be established (e.g., particle size, charge, stability and composition). (C) The influence of environmental stresses on the stability of the nanoemulsions will be examined: (pH, salt, temperature, freezing). (D). The influence of specific particle properties on the stability, rheology and appearance of nanoemulsions will be determined and quantified using appropriate mathematical models. These experiments will generate fundamental knowledge that could be used by the food industry to rationally design effective delivery systems for functional lipids. Efforts will be made to disseminate the knowledge to the food industry through direct contacts, presentations at meetings and publication in scientific manuscripts.

Progress 01/01/12 to 06/30/16

Outputs
Target Audience:The target audiences reached through our efforts during this period of the project are: attendees at scientific meetings where the work was presented (IFT, AOCS, ACS, Delivery of Functionality); readers of scientific journals where work was published (e.g. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science; Food Chemistry, Soft Matter, Food Research International); industrial companies that we have interacted with at the Strategic Research Alliance at UMASS and at conferences etc. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project has led to the training and development of a number of Ph.D. and Post-Doctoral researchers in the development, characterization, and application of nanoemulsions and nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for application in the food industry. The importance of thistraining is highlighted by the fact that Ph.D. and Post-Doc working on the project have been offered positions in major food companies to work on emulsions and nanoemulsions. In addition, the research supported by the project has been incorporated into the Food Emulsions short course at UMASS, which typically gives training to academic, industrial and government scientists (50-70 people)in the fabrication, characterization, and utilizationof food emulsions. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?The knowledge gained from the project so far has been disseminated through scientific publications, presentations at scientific meetings and research alliances, and through consulting with the food industry. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Demonstration of Practical Utility of Nanoemulsions: The information generated so far in the project would be used to design and fabricate nanoemulsions for applications in specific food and beverage products. In particular, we are examining the influence of incorporating nanoemulsions in food gels and other systems, and the influence on their stability, optical properties, and functional performance.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? (1). The Post-Doc (Yuhua Chang) and Ph.D. students (Jennifer Komaiko and Ying Yang) working on the have developed a range of different low-energy and high-energy methods for fabricating food-grade nanoemulsions, including high pressure homogenization, self-emulsification, emulsion inversion point, and phase inversion temperature methods. (2). Experiments have been carried out to establish optimum fabrication conditions for nanoemulsion formation using each of the different low energy and high energy homogenization methods. 3). We have shown that food-grade lipid nanoparticles containing encapsulated ingredients (such as lipophilic nutraceuticals, pigments, and antimicrobials) can be prepared by simple and inexpensive low-energy methods. 4). Mathematical models have been developed to relate the structure and composition of nanoemulsions to their physicochemical properties (such as optical properties, stability, and rheology). (5). We have shown that natural emulsifiers (lecithins) can be used to form emulsions and nanoemlusions by low and high energy homogenization methods. The knowledge gained from the project so far has been disseminated through scientific publications, presentations at scientific meetings and research alliances, and consulting with the food industry.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Landry, K. S., Y. Chang, D. J. McClements and L. McLandsborough (2014). "Effectiveness of a novel spontaneous carvacrol nanoemulsion against Salmonella enterica Enteritidis and Escherichia coli O157:H7 on, contaminated mung bean and alfalfa seeds." International Journal of Food Microbiology 187: 15-21.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: McClements, D. J., E. A. Decker and S. J. Choi (2014). "Impact of Environmental Stresses on Orange Oil-in-Water Emulsions Stabilized by Sucrose Monopalmitate and Lysolecithin." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(14): 3257-3261.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Guttoff, M., A. H. Saberi and D. J. McClements (2015). "Formation of vitamin D nanoemulsion-based delivery systems by spontaneous emulsification: Factors affecting particle size and stability." Food Chemistry 171: 117-122.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Komaiko, J. and D. J. McClements (2014). "Optimization of isothermal low-energy nanoemulsion formation: Hydrocarbon oil, non-ionic surfactant, and water systems." Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 425: 59-66.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Komaiko, J. and D. J. McClements (2015a). "Food-grade nanoemulsion filled hydrogels formed by spontaneous emulsification and gelation: Optical properties, rheology, and stability." Food Hydrocolloids 46: 67-75.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Komaiko, J. and D. J. McClements (2015b). "Low-energy formation of edible nanoemulsions by spontaneous emulsification: Factors influencing particle size." Journal of Food Engineering 146: 122-128.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: McClements, D. J. and H. Xiao (2014). "Excipient foods: designing food matrices that improve the oral bioavailability of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals." Food & Function 5(7): 1320-1333.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Ozturk, B., S. Argin, M. Ozilgen and D. J. McClements (2014). "Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsion-based vitamin E delivery systems using natural surfactants: Quillaja saponin and lecithin." Journal of Food Engineering 142: 57-63.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Piorkowski, D. T. and D. J. McClements (2014). "Beverage emulsions: Recent developments in formulation, production, and applications." Food Hydrocolloids 42: 5-41.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Qiu, C., M. Zhao, E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015a). "Influence of protein type on oxidation and digestibility of fish oil-in-water emulsions: Gliadin, caseinate, and whey protein." Food Chemistry 175: 249-257.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Qiu, C., M. Zhao and D. J. McClements (2015b). "Improving the stability of wheat protein-stabilized emulsions: Effect of pectin and xanthan gum addition." Food Hydrocolloids 43: 377-387.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Saberi, A. H., Y. Fang and D. J. McClements (2014a). "Effect of Salts on Formation and Stability of Vitamin E-Enriched Mini-emulsions Produced by Spontaneous Emulsification." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(46): 11246-11253.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Saberi, A. H., Y. Fang and D. J. McClements (2014c). "Stabilization of Vitamin E-Enriched Nanoemulsions: Influence of Post-Homogenization Cosurfactant Addition." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(7): 1625-1633.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Walker, R., E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015). "Development of food-grade nanoemulsions and emulsions for delivery of omega-3 fatty acids: opportunities and obstacles in the food industry." Food & Function 6(1): 42-55.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Xia, Z., D. J. McClements and H. Xiao (2015). "Influence of Physical State of beta-Carotene (Crystallized versus Solubilized) on Bioaccessibility." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63(3): 990-997.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Yi, J., Z. Zhu, D. J. McClements and E. A. Decker (2014). "Influence of Aqueous Phase Emulsifiers on Lipid Oxidation in Water-in-Walnut Oil Emulsions." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(9): 2104-2111.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Komaiko, J. S., & McClements, D. J. (2016). Formation of Food-Grade Nanoemulsions Using Low-Energy Preparation Methods: A Review of Available Methods. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 15(2), 331-352.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zhang, R., Z. Zhang, H. Zhang, E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015a). "Influence of emulsifier type on gastrointestinal fate of oil-in-water emulsions containing anionic dietary fiber (pectin)." Food Hydrocolloids 45: 175-185.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zou, L., W. Liu, C. Liu, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements (2015). "Utilizing Food Matrix Effects To Enhance Nutraceutical Bioavailability: Increase of Curcumin Bioaccessibility Using Excipient Emulsions." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63(7): 2052-2062.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Bai, L., & McClements, D. J. (2016). Development of microfluidization methods for efficient production of concentrated nanoemulsions: Comparison of single- and dual-channel microfluidizers. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 466, 206-212.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zhang, Z., R. Zhang, E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015b). "Development of food-grade filled hydrogels for oral delivery of lipophilic active ingredients: pH-triggered release." Food Hydrocolloids 44: 345-352.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zhang, Z., E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2014). "Encapsulation, protection, and release of polyunsaturated lipids using biopolymer-based hydrogel particles." Food Research International 64: 520-526.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Komaiko, J., Sastrosubroto, A., & McClements, D. J. (2016). Encapsulation of omega-3 fatty acids in nanoemulsion-based delivery systems fabricated from natural emulsifiers: Sunflower phospholipids. Food Chemistry, 203, 331-339.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Liu, X., Bi, J. F., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2016). Enhancement of Nutraceutical Bioavailability using Excipient Nanoemulsions: Role of Lipid Digestion Products on Bioaccessibility of Carotenoids and Phenolics from Mangoes. Journal of Food Science, 81(3), N754-N761.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., & McClements, D. J. (2016a). Enhancement of lycopene bioaccessibility from tomato juice using excipient emulsions: Influence of lipid droplet size. Food Chemistry, 210, 295-304.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., Martin-Belloso, O., & McClements, D. J. (2016). Excipient Nanoemulsions for Improving Oral Bioavailability of Bioactives. Nanomaterials, 6(1).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., & McClements, D. J. (2016b). Improvement of beta-Carotene Bioaccessibility from Dietary Supplements Using Excipient Nanoemulsions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 64(22), 4639-4647.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., & McClements, D. J. (2016c). Influence of Nanoemulsion Addition on the Stability of Conventional Emulsions. Food Biophysics, 11(1), 1-9.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., Decker, E. A., & McClements, D. J. (2016). Influence of an anionic polysaccharide on the physical and oxidative stability of omega-3 nanoemulsions: Antioxidant effects of alginate. Food Hydrocolloids, 52, 690-698.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., Sun, Q., Urn, B. H., Park, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2015). In vitro and in vivo study of fucoxanthin bioavailability from nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: Impact of lipid carrier type. Journal of Functional Foods, 17, 293-304.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Uluata, S., Decker, E. A., & McClements, D. J. (2016). Optimization of Nanoemulsion Fabrication Using Microfluidization: Role of Surfactant Concentration on Formation and Stability. Food Biophysics, 11(1), 52-59.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Uluata, S., McClements, D. J., & Decker, E. A. (2015). Physical Stability, Autoxidation, and Photosensitized Oxidation of omega-3 Oils in Nanoemulsions Prepared with Natural and Synthetic Surfactants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63(42), 9333-9340.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Zhang, R. J., Zhang, Z. P., Kumosani, T., Khoja, S., Abualnaja, K. O., & McClements, D. J. (2016a). Encapsulation of beta-carotene in Nanoemulsion-Based Delivery Systems Formed by Spontaneous Emulsification: Influence of Lipid Composition on Stability and Bioaccessibility. Food Biophysics, 11(2), 154-164.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Mayer, S., Weiss, J., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Behavior of vitamin E acetate delivery systems under simulated gastrointestinal conditions: Lipid digestion and bioaccessibility of low-energy nanoemulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 404, 215-222.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Mayer, S., Weiss, J., & McClements, D. J. (2013b). Vitamin E-enriched nanoemulsions formed by emulsion phase inversion: Factors influencing droplet size and stability. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 402, 122-130.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Saberi, A. H., Fang, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2013a). Effect of glycerol on formation, stability, and properties of vitamin-E enriched nanoemulsions produced using spontaneous emulsification. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 411, 105-113.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Pool, H., Mendoza, S., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Encapsulation and release of hydrophobic bioactive components in nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: impact of physical form on quercetin bioaccessibility. Food & Function, 4(1), 162-174.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Saberi, A. H., Fang, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2013b). Fabrication of vitamin E-enriched nanoemulsions by spontaneous emulsification: Effect of propylene glycol and ethanol on formation, stability, and properties. Food Research International, 54(1), 812-820.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Saberi, A. H., Fang, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2013c). Fabrication of vitamin E-enriched nanoemulsions: Factors affecting particle size using spontaneous emulsification. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 391, 95-102.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: McClements, D. J. (2013). Edible lipid nanoparticles: Digestion, absorption, and potential toxicity. Progress in Lipid Research, 52(4), 409-423.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Rao, J. J., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Optimization of lipid nanoparticle formation for beverage applications: Influence of oil type, cosolvents, and cosurfactants on nanoemulsion properties. Journal of Food Engineering, 118(2), 198-204.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., Qian, C., Martin-Belloso, O., & McClements, D. J. (2013a). Influence of particle size on lipid digestion and beta-carotene bioaccessibility in emulsions and nanoemulsions. Food Chemistry, 141(2), 1472-1480.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Salvia-Trujillo, L., Qian, C., Martin-Belloso, O., & McClements, D. J. (2013b). Modulating beta-carotene bioaccessibility by controlling oil composition and concentration in edible nanoemulsions. Food Chemistry, 139(1-4), 878-884.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Yang, Y., Leser, M. E., Sher, A. A., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Formation and stability of emulsions using a natural small molecule surfactant: Quillaja saponin (Q-Naturale (R)). Food Hydrocolloids, 30(2), 589-596.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Yang, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Encapsulation of vitamin E in edible emulsions fabricated using a natural surfactant. Food Hydrocolloids, 30(2), 712-720.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Yao, M. F., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2014). Delivery of Lipophilic Bioactives: Assembly, Disassembly, and Reassembly of Lipid Nanoparticles. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Vol 5, 5, 53-81.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Numerous (> 20) scientific presentations were given at conferences, short courses and to industry on nanoemulsions.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Chang, Y. and D. J. McClements (2014). "Optimization of Orange Oil Nanoemulsion Formation by Isothermal Low-Energy Methods: Influence of the Oil Phase, Surfactant, and Temperature." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(10): 2306-2312.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Chang, Y., L. McLandsborough and D. J. McClements (2015). "Fabrication, stability and efficacy of dual-component antimicrobial nanoemulsions: Essential oil (thyme oil) and cationic surfactant (lauric arginate)." Food Chemistry 172: 298-304.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Cho, H. T., L. Salvia-Trujillo, J. Kim, Y. Park, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements (2014). "Droplet size and composition of nutraceutical nanoemulsions influences bioavailability of long chain fatty acids and Coenzyme Q10." Food Chemistry 156: 117-122.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Davidov-Pardo, G. and D. J. McClements (2015). "Nutraceutical delivery systems: Resveratrol encapsulation in grape seed oil nanoemulsions formed by spontaneous emulsification." Food Chemistry 167: 205-212.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Gulotta, A., A. H. Saberi, M. C. Nicoli and D. J. McClements (2014). "Nanoemulsion-Based Delivery Systems for Polyunsaturated (omega-3) Oils: Formation Using a Spontaneous Emulsification Method." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(7): 1720-1725.


Progress 01/01/15 to 12/31/15

Outputs
Target Audience:Attendees at scientific meetings where the work was presented (IFT, AOCS, Delivery of Functionality); readers of scientific journals where work was published; industrial companies that we have interacted with at the Strategic Research Alliance at UMASS and at conferences etc. Changes/Problems:Asked for 1 year extension to complete project due to need to hire someone What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project has led to the training and development of a number of undergraduate, graduate, and Post-Doctoral researchers in the development, characterization, and application of nanoemulsions and nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for application in the food industry. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?The knowledge gained from the project so far has been disseminated through scientific publications, presentations at scientific meetings and research alliances, short courses, and through consulting with the food industry. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?We intend to continue to identify optimum formulations for preparing nanoemulsions that are commercially viable and suitable for use in the food industry. We intend to study the influence of nanoemulsion composition and structure on potential gastrointestinal fate. In addition, we intend to examine practical applications of these nanoemulsions as delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive agents. Demonstration of Practical Utility of Nanoemulsions: The information generated so far in the project would be used to design and fabricate nanoemulsions for applications in specific food and beverage products. In particular, we are examining the influence of incorporating nanoemulsions in food gels and other systems, and the influence on their stability, optical properties, and functional performance.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? (1). The researchers working on the project have been examining methods of optimizing the formation of nanoemulsions containing small droplets using both low-energy and high-energy emulsification methods. In particular, we have produced transparent or slightly turbid nanoemulsions from all food-grade (and sometimes all natural) ingredients. We have examined the influence of co-solutes, surfactant type, oil type, and preparation method on the formation and stability of nanoemulsions. We have optimized specific combinations of surfactants and oils to prepare nanoemulsions suitable for utilization in food products. (2). Experiments have been carried out to establish the influence of various forms of environmental stresses on nanoemulsion properties such as storage time, pH, ionic strength, temperature, and enzyme activity. (3). Structure-functional relationships have been developed to related nanoemulsion properties (composition and structure) to functionality (rheology, stability, optical properties). (4). We have shown nanoemulsions can be incorporated into model foods (such as gelatin gels). (5). We have shown that natural emulsifiers (lecithins) can be used to form emulsions and nanoemulsions by spontaneous emulsification or microfluidization

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Chang, Y., McLandsborough, L., & McClements, D. J. (2015). Fabrication, stability and efficacy of dual-component antimicrobial nanoemulsions: Essential oil (thyme oil) and cationic surfactant (lauric arginate). Food Chemistry, 172, 298-304.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Davidov-Pardo, G., & McClements, D. J. (2015). Nutraceutical delivery systems: Resveratrol encapsulation in grape seed oil nanoemulsions formed by spontaneous emulsification. Food Chemistry, 167, 205-212.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Guttoff, M., Saberi, A. H., & McClements, D. J. (2015). Formation of vitamin D nanoemulsion-based delivery systems by spontaneous emulsification: Factors affecting particle size and stability. Food Chemistry, 171, 117-122.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Joos, A., Weiss, J., & McClements, D. J. (2015). Fabrication of Lipophilic Nanoparticles by Spontaneous Emulsification: Stabilization by Cosurfactants. Food Biophysics, 10(1), 83-93.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Komaiko, J., & McClements, D. J. (2015a). Food-grade nanoemulsion filled hydrogels formed by spontaneous emulsification and gelation: Optical properties, rheology, and stability. Food Hydrocolloids, 46, 67-75.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Komaiko, J., & McClements, D. J. (2015b). Low-energy formation of edible nanoemulsions by spontaneous emulsification: Factors influencing particle size. Journal of Food Engineering, 146, 122-128.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Saberi, A. H., Fang, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2014). Effect of Salts on Formation and Stability of Vitamin E-Enriched Mini-emulsions Produced by Spontaneous Emulsification. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 62(46), 11246-11253.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Yao, M., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2014). Delivery of Lipophilic Bioactives: Assembly, Disassembly, and Reassembly of Lipid Nanoparticles. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Vol 5, 5, 53-81.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Gulotta, A., A. H. Saberi, M. C. Nicoli and D. J. McClements (2014). "Nanoemulsion-Based Delivery Systems for Polyunsaturated (omega-3) Oils: Formation Using a Spontaneous Emulsification Method." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62(7): 1720-1725.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zhang, R., Z. Zhang, H. Zhang, E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015a). "Influence of emulsifier type on gastrointestinal fate of oil-in-water emulsions containing anionic dietary fiber (pectin)." Food Hydrocolloids 45: 175-185.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zhang, Z., R. Zhang, E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015b). "Development of food-grade filled hydrogels for oral delivery of lipophilic active ingredients: pH-triggered release." Food Hydrocolloids 44: 345-352.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Zhang, Z., E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2014). "Encapsulation, protection, and release of polyunsaturated lipids using biopolymer-based hydrogel particles." Food Research International 64: 520-526.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Zou, L., W. Liu, C. Liu, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements (2015). "Utilizing Food Matrix Effects To Enhance Nutraceutical Bioavailability: Increase of Curcumin Bioaccessibility Using Excipient Emulsions." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63(7): 2052-2062.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Xia, Z., McClements, D. J., & Xiao, H. (2015). Influence of Physical State of beta-Carotene (Crystallized versus Solubilized) on Bioaccessibility. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63(3), 990-997.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Walker, R., E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015). "Development of food-grade nanoemulsions and emulsions for delivery of omega-3 fatty acids: opportunities and obstacles in the food industry." Food & Function 6(1): 42-55.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Qiu, C., M. Zhao, E. A. Decker and D. J. McClements (2015a). "Influence of protein type on oxidation and digestibility of fish oil-in-water emulsions: Gliadin, caseinate, and whey protein." Food Chemistry 175: 249-257.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Qiu, C., M. Zhao and D. J. McClements (2015b). "Improving the stability of wheat protein-stabilized emulsions: Effect of pectin and xanthan gum addition." Food Hydrocolloids 43: 377-387.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Piorkowski, D. T., & McClements, D. J. (2014). Beverage emulsions: Recent developments in formulation, production, and applications. Food Hydrocolloids, 42, 5-41.


Progress 01/01/14 to 12/31/14

Outputs
Target Audience: The target audiences reached through our efforts during this period of the project are: attendees at scientific meetings where the work was presented (IFT, AOCS, ACS); readers of scientific journals where work was published (e.g. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science; Food Chemistry, Soft Matter, Food Research International); industrial companies that we have interacted with at the Strategic Research Alliance at UMASS and at conferences etc. Changes/Problems: We have requested a 1-year extension of the grant, since it started late due to the need to find appropriate Post-Docs and Ph.D. students to work on it. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? This project has led to the training and development of a number of Ph.D. and Post-Doctoral researchers in the development, characterization, and application of nanoemulsions and nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for application in the food industry. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? The knowledge gained from the project so far has been disseminated through scientific publications, presentations at scientific meetings and research alliances, short courses, and through consulting with the food industry. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Demonstration of Practical Utility of Nanoemulsions: The information generated so far in the project would be used to design and fabricate nanoemulsions for applications in specific food and beverage products. In particular, we are examining the influence of incorporating nanoemulsions in food gels and other systems, and the influence on their stability, optical properties, and functional performance.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? (1). The Post-Docs (Yuhua Chang and Amir Saberi) and Ph.D. students (Jennifer Komaiko and Ying Yang) working on the have developed a range of different low-energy and high-energy methods for fabricating food-grade nanoemulsions, including high pressure homogenization, self-emulsification, emulsion inversion point, and phase inversion temperature methods. (2). Experiments have been carried out to establish optimum fabrication conditions for nanoemulsion formation using each of the different low energy and high energy homogenization methods. 3). We have shown that food-grade lipid nanoparticles containing encapsulated ingredients (such as lipophilic nutraceuticals, pigments, and antimicrobials) can be prepared by simple and inexpensive low-energy methods. 4). Mathematical models have been developed to relate the structure and composition of nanoemulsions to their physicochemical properties (such as optical properties, stability, and rheology). The knowledge gained from the project so far has been disseminated through scientific publications, presentations at scientific meetings and research alliances, and consulting with the food industry.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Mayer, S., Weiss, J., & McClements, D. J. (2013a). Behavior of vitamin E acetate delivery systems under simulated gastrointestinal conditions: Lipid digestion and bioaccessibility of low-energy nanoemulsions. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 404, 215-222.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Mayer, S., Weiss, J., & McClements, D. J. (2013b). Vitamin E-enriched nanoemulsions formed by emulsion phase inversion: Factors influencing droplet size and stability. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 402, 122-130.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: McClements, D. J. (2013). Edible lipid nanoparticles: Digestion, absorption, and potential toxicity. Progress in Lipid Research, 52(4), 409-423.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Pool, H., Mendoza, S., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Encapsulation and release of hydrophobic bioactive components in nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: impact of physical form on quercetin bioaccessibility. Food & Function, 4(1), 162-174.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Qian, C., Decker, E. A., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Impact of lipid nanoparticle physical state on particle aggregation and beta-carotene degradation: Potential limitations of solid lipid nanoparticles. Food Research International, 52(1), 342-349.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Rao, J. J., Decker, E. A., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Nutraceutical nanoemulsions: influence of carrier oil composition (digestible versus indigestible oil) on -carotene bioavailability. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 93(13), 3175-3183.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Rao, J. J., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Optimization of lipid nanoparticle formation for beverage applications: Influence of oil type, cosolvents, and cosurfactants on nanoemulsion properties. Journal of Food Engineering, 118(2), 198-204.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Saberi, A. H., Fang, Y., & McClements, D. J. (2013). Fabrication of vitamin E-enriched nanoemulsions: Factors affecting particle size using spontaneous emulsification. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 391, 95-102.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Yao, M. F., Xiao, H., & McClements, D. J. (2014). Delivery of Lipophilic Bioactives: Assembly, Disassembly, and Reassembly of Lipid Nanoparticles. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Vol 5, 5, 53-81.
  • Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Over 20 talks have been given at scientific conferences, to industry, and at short courses


Progress 01/01/13 to 12/31/13

Outputs
Target Audience: The major target audience for this research is the agricultural, food, health care, and pharmaceutical industries. The nanoemulsion-based delivery systems developed in this work could be used to incorporate lipophilic active agents into food, beverage, health care and pharmaceutical products. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? The project has led to training of the Post-Doc (Yuhua Chang) and Ph.D. students (Jennifer Komaiko and Ying Yang) working directly on the project, as well as many other students and Post-Docs working in my laboratory who have found out about the research through lab meetings and presentations. Information of the project has been used in training courses for industry (e.g., Food Emusions short course 2013, UMASS, which had over 70 participants from academia and industry). How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? The results have been presented at scientific meetings and short courses, and published in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? In the next reporting period we aim to accomplish the following: Development of Quantitative Structure-Function Relationships (QSFR) for Nanoemulsion Design: QSFR would be developed to relate lipid nanoparticle characteristics (concentration, size, charge, structure) to the physicochemical and functional properties of nanoemulsions. . Demonstrate of Practical Utility of Nanoemulsions: The information generated so far will be used to design and fabricate nanoemulsions for applications in specific food and beverage products. For example, antimicrobial nanoemulsions and nutraceutical delivery systems.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? THe following accomplishments have been made (1). The Post-Doc (Yuhua Chang) and Ph.D. students (Jennifer Komaiko and Ying Yang) working on the have developed a range of different low-energy and high-energy methods for fabricating food-grade nanoemulsions, including high pressure homogenization, self-emulsification, emulsion inversion point, and phase inversion temperature methods. (2). Experiments have been carried out to establish optimum fabrication conditions for nanoemulsion formation using each of the different low energy and high energy homogenization methods. 3). We have shown that food-grade lipid nanoparticles containing encapsulated ingredients (such as lipophilic nutraceuticals, pigments and antimicrobials) can be prepared by simple and inexpensive low-energy methods. 4). Mathematical models have been developed to relate the structure and composition of nanoemulsions to their physicochemical properties (such as optical properties, stability, and rheology). The knowledge gained from the project so far has been disseminated through scientific publications, presentations at scientific meetings and research alliances, and consulting with the food industry.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: K. Ahmed, Y. Li, D. J. McClements and H. Xiao, Food Chemistry, 2012, 132, 799-807.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: Y. H. Chang, L. McLandsborough and D. J. McClements, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2012, 60, 12056-12063.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: Y. Li, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements, Food Biophysics, 2012, 7, 341-353.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: Y. Y. Mao and D. J. McClements, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2012, 380, 60-66.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: S. Mayer, J. Weiss and D. J. McClements, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2013, 404, 215-222.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: S. Mayer, J. Weiss and D. J. McClements, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2013, 402, 122-130.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: D. J. McClements, Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science, 2012, 17, 235-245.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: D. J. McClements, Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 2012, 174, 1-30.
  • Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: D. J. McClements, in Encapsulation Technologies and Delivery Systems for Food Ingredients and Nutraceuticals, ed. N. Garti and D. J. McClements, 2012, pp. 3-18.
  • Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: D. J. McClements, in Nanotechnology in the Food, Beverage and Nutraceutical Industries, ed. Q. Huang, 2012, pp. 293-316.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: D. J. McClements and H. Xiao, Food & Function, 2012, 3, 202-220.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: F. Ostertag, J. Weiss and D. J. McClements, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2012, 388, 95-102.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: H. Pool, S. Mendoza, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements, Food & Function, 2013, 4, 162-174.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: C. Qian, E. A. Decker, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements, Food Chemistry, 2012, 135, 1036-1043.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: C. Qian, E. A. Decker, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements, Food Chemistry, 2012, 135, 1440-1447.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: C. Qian, E. A. Decker, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements, Food Chemistry, 2012, 132, 1221-1229.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: C. Qian, E. A. Decker, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements, Food Research International, 2013, 52, 342-349.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: J. Rao and D. J. McClements, Food Hydrocolloids, 2012, 29, 326-334.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: J. J. Rao, E. A. Decker, H. Xiao and D. J. McClements, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 2013, 93, 3175-3183.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: J. J. Rao and D. J. McClements, Food Chemistry, 2012, 134, 749-757.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: J. J. Rao and D. J. McClements, Food Hydrocolloids, 2012, 26, 268-276.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: J. J. Rao and D. J. McClements, Journal of Food Engineering, 2013, 118, 198-204.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: A. H. Saberi, Y. Fang and D. J. McClements, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2013, 411, 105-113.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: A. H. Saberi, Y. Fang and D. J. McClements, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2013, 391, 95-102.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: L. Salvia-Trujillo, C. Qian, O. Martin-Belloso and D. J. McClements, Food Chemistry, 2013, 141, 1472-1480.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: L. Salvia-Trujillo, C. Qian, O. Martin-Belloso and D. J. McClements, Food Chemistry, 2013, 139, 878-884.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Y. Yang, M. E. Leser, A. A. Sher and D. J. McClements, Food Hydrocolloids, 2013, 30, 589-596.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: Y. Yang, C. Marshall-Breton, M. E. Leser, A. A. Sher and D. J. McClements, Food Hydrocolloids, 2012, 29, 398-406.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Y. Yang and D. J. McClements, Food Hydrocolloids, 2013, 30, 712-720.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: J. K. Zheng, Y. Li, N. Charoensinphon, W. Nutakul, P. Dong, P. J. Qiu, D. J. McClements and H. Xiao, Faseb Journal, 2012, 26.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: K. Ziani, Y. Fang and D. J. McClements, Food Chemistry, 2012, 134, 1106-1112.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: K. Ziani, Y. Fang and D. J. McClements, Food Research International, 2012, 46, 209-216.


Progress 01/01/12 to 12/31/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Nanoemulsions have a number of advantages over other emulsion-based delivery systems for particular food and beverage applications: optical clarity; increased bioavailability of encapsulated components; improved physical stability; novel textural characteristics. Nevertheless, their great potential is not being fully realized because of the lack of fundamental knowledge required to formulate nanoemulsions with specific functional properties from food-grade ingredients. The goal of the proposed study is to address these challenges by carrying out basic research to establish quantitative structure-function relationships to rationally formulate food-grade nanoemulsions for food and beverage applications. The specific goals that will be carried out to achieve the overall objectives are listed below: 1: Mapping Nanoemulsion Fabrication Methodologies. 2: Development of Quantitative Structure-Function Relationships (QSFR) for Nanoemulsion Design. 3: Demonstration of Practical Utility of Nanoemulsions. (1). The Post-Doc and Ph.D. students working on the project learned the various methods of fabricating and characterizing nanoemulsions, including homogenization methods, dynamic light scattering, laser diffraction, optical microscopy, particle electrophoresis, turbidity and rheological methods. (2). Experiments have been carried out to establish optimum fabrication conditions for nanoemulsion formation using various low energy and high energy homogenization methods. 3). We have demonstrated that food-grade lipid nanoparticles containing encapsulated ingredients can be prepared by simple methods. The knowledge gained from the project so far has been disseminated through scientific publications, presentations at scientific meetings and research alliances, and through consulting with the food industry. PARTICIPANTS: David Julian McClements (PI) is responsible for managing the project and directing the research. Dr. Yuhua Chang is a Post-Doctoral Researcher working on the project. TARGET AUDIENCES: The major target audience for this research is the agricultural, food, health care, and pharmaceutical industries. The nanoemulsion-based delivery systems developed in this work could be used to incorporate lipophilic active agents into food, beverage, health care and pharmaceutical products. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
Outcomes: (1).We have developed novel methods of fabricating transparent food-grade delivery systems for lipophilic compounds. (2). We have shown how structural design principles can be used to prepare lipid nanoparticles with different structural and functional properties. (3).We have identified advantages and disadvantages of different nanoemulsion fabrication methods. Impacts: (1) This project provides a solution to the need within the food and beverage industries to develop transparent delivery systems for lipophilic nutraceuticals. (2) These nutraceutical delivery systems could be incorporated into food and beverage products to improve the health of the general population. (3) The project will also improve the competitiveness of the US food industry by leading to the development of novel encapsulation technologies for improving food quality and health.

Publications

  • Troncoso, E., J.M. Aguilera, and D.J. McClements, Fabrication, characterization and lipase digestibility of food-grade nanoemulsions. Food Hydrocolloids, 2012. 27(2): p. 355-363.
  • Troncoso, E., J.M. Aguilera, and D.J. McClements, Influence of particle size on the in vitro digestibility of protein-coated lipid nanoparticles. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 2012. 382: p. 110-116.
  • McClements, D.J., Nanoemulsions versus microemulsions: terminology, differences, and similarities. Soft Matter, 2012. 8(6): p. 1719-1729.
  • Li, Y., J.K. Zheng, H. Xiao, and D.J. McClements, Nanoemulsion-based delivery systems for poorly water-soluble bioactive compounds: Influence of formulation parameters on polymethoxyflavone crystallization. Food Hydrocolloids, 2012. 27(2): p. 517-528.
  • Ahmed, K., Y. Li, D.J. McClements, and H. Xiao, Nanoemulsion- and emulsion-based delivery systems for curcumin: Encapsulation and release properties. Food Chemistry, 2012. 132(2): p. 799-807.
  • Rao, J.J. and D.J. McClements, Formation of Flavor Oil Microemulsions, Nanoemulsions and Emulsions: Influence of Composition and Preparation Method. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2011. 59(9): p. 5026-5035. Rao, J.J. and D.J. McClements, Food-grade microemulsions, nanoemulsions and emulsions: Fabrication from sucrose monopalmitate & lemon oil. Food Hydrocolloids, 2011. 25(6): p. 1413-1423.
  • Qian, C. and D.J. McClements, Formation of nanoemulsions stabilized by model food-grade emulsifiers using high-pressure homogenization: Factors affecting particle size. Food Hydrocolloids, 2011. 25(5): p. 1000-1008.