SENSORS AND WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK FOR MEASURING SOIL, WATER, AIR AND BIOFUEL

• Sponsoring Institution: National Institute of Food and Agriculture
• Project Status: COMPLETE
• Funding Source: HATCH
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 0213947
• Project Start Date: Jan 1, 2009
• Project End Date: Dec 31, 2014
• Program Code: [(N/A)]- (N/A)

Recipient Organization
KANSAS STATE UNIV
(N/A)
MANHATTAN,KS 66506

Performing Department
Agri Engineering Bio/Ag Engineering

Non Technical Summary
The proposed five-year plan concentrates on the development and testing of several types of sensors that are capable of measuring properties and/or contaminants in water, air, soil, and biofuel, and wireless sensor networks for effective, long-term environment monitoring, which is urgently needed for managing natural resources, protecting the environment, improving the efficiency and profitability of agricultural systems, and maintaining the sustainability of agricultural production. Precision farming decisions for optimizing input rates of water, fertilizer, pesticides, and seeds are largely based on soil properties. Traditional soil surveys and accompanying soil databases are too general for use, and the current method of intensive grid sampling requires a sizeable investment of money and time. Inexpensive sensors that are capable of measuring multiple soil properties in real- time are needed. A large portion of streams and lakes do not fully support domestic and agricultural uses of water. Agriculture requires extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides. Runoff carried by sediments leads to water pollution. Conserving and protecting natural water resources require effective tools to determine properties and constituents of surface and ground water. Knowledge of these properties influences management strategies. Because water quality parameters vary substantially over time, continuous real-time monitoring is desirable. Air quality is a critical factor for the health of human and animals. Exposures to excessive particulate matter, engine exhausts, and VOCs have been linked to a variety of health problems. Work to make it possible to remotely monitor the atmosphere with clearly understood measurement of single or multiple agents in real time will be almost beyond price. Factors impacting the use of biofuel are its low energy content and increased NOx emission. Modern engines running on biofuel need adjustments based on fuel composition. A sensor that is capable of detecting biofuel blend ratio and multiple impurities in biofuels in real-time is extremely useful for fuel quality control during production, storage, transportation, distribution, and application. Wireless sensor technologies yield great reduction in wiring harness and fast sensor deployment. Wireless sensors allow otherwise impossible sensor applications, such as monitoring dangerous, hazardous, or remote areas and locations. Wireless sensor networks (WSN) allow multiple sensors to be deployed cost-effectively for short- or long-term measurement and monitoring of soil, water, air, and fuel properties. The developed WSN can also serve as an infrastructure for continuous, large-scale monitoring and characterization of many other environmental, ecologic, and health-related parameters. This type of infrastructure will be crucial to scientists, stakeholders, natural resource managers, and crop producers in maintaining environmental quality, securing long-term energy and water supplies, managing high-efficiency production systems, and enhancing the quality and integrity of the natural environment that provides essential ecological services to humans.

Animal Health Component

(N/A)

Research Effort Categories

Basic

(N/A)

Applied

(N/A)

Developmental

(N/A)

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
102	0199	2020	33%
141	0410	2020	33%
402	5399	2020	34%

Knowledge Area
102 - Soil, Plant, Water, Nutrient Relationships; 141 - Air Resource Protection and Management; 402 - Engineering Systems and Equipment;

Subject Of Investigation
5399 - Structures, facilities, and equipment, general/other; 0199 - Soil and land, general; 0410 - Air;

Field Of Science
2020 - Engineering;

Keywords

sensor, wireless sensor, wireless sensor network, soil, water

quality, air quality, biofuel, permittivity, optical sensor,

environment monitoring

Goals / Objectives
The overall goal of the research actions planned for the next five years is to fully utilize the unique expertise of the team on electronics and instrumentation to support the mission of K-State research and extension. This includes conserving and improving the quality of natural resources, land, water, air, and energy, maintaining a sustainable agricultural production system, and insuring safe food and water supplies for the people. The team will accomplish this goal through developing cost-effective sensors and sensor networks that are urgently needed for measuring the properties of soil, water, air, and fuel. This will include, but will not be limited to permittivity sensors, optical sensors, and wireless sensor networks. Specific objectives include: Developing permittivity-based sensors to measure water quality (yrs 1-2), biofuel quality (yrs 1-3), air quality (yrs 3-5) and soil properties (yrs 4-5). Developing optical sensors to measure sediment concentration (yrs 1-2) and sediment flux (yrs 3-5). Developing versatile wireless sensor nodes for easy sensor deployment (yrs 2-3). Developing wireless sensor networks for remote environmental monitoring via the Internet (yrs 3-5).

Project Methods
For Project 1, Permittivity sensors, prototype sensors will be developed for different applications (water, biofuel, air, and soil measurements). Design of the sensors will be based on theoretical studies on electrochemical and impedance transformation models. Various multivariate analysis tools will be studied and compared for classification accuracy and immunity to noise. Target material composition and contaminants we intend to measure using the permittivity sensors include total suspended solids, total dissolved nutrients, heavy metals, and pesticides in water; biodiesel/diesel and ethanol/gasoline blend ratios and impurities in biofuels; particulate matter, engine exhaust, and volatile organic components (VOCs) in air; and water content, salinity, and nutrients in soil. First, these parameters will be measured separately to study the effect of each component/contaminant on the permittivity of the materials. Combinations of parameters will then be measured simultaneously using prediction models established based on various pattern-recognition methods. The water sensor will be tested at existing USGS realtime, continuous stream and lake monitoring installations. The fuel sensor will be tested with different blends of several types of biodiesel fuels and different amounts of several impurities. Experiments of the air sensor will be conducted inside an instrumented particle chamber. Field measurements will be conducted at a grain elevator facility. For Project 2, Optical sensors, an optical TSS sensor we developed in a previous project will be improved and field tested. This includes installations of multiple TSS sensors at strategically selected locations to observe the effects of agricultural activities on sediment loading. We plan to add a flow velocity measurement function to the TSS sensor. Furthermore, we plan to study different methods for automated sensor lens cleaning, including the ultrasonic method, wiper, and air blast. For Project 3, Wireless sensor network, we plan to develop a solar-powered, stand-alone, wireless sensor package, which will first be developed for the TSS/flow velocity sensors described in Project 2. Durability, low power consumption, and low cost will be the main design considerations. We will also develop a three layer wireless sensor network (WSN), which will be composed of multiple local wireless sensor networks (LWSN), a mid-range wireless network (MRWN), and a long-range cellular network (LRCN). The LWSN is needed at each local monitoring site to establish a local wireless sensor network among multiple stand-alone sensor packages. The MRWN is needed to relay signals measured at multiple LWSNs to a central station where coverage of one of the commercial cellular systems is available. The LRCN consists of a cellular modem that uses the data service of a commercial cellular phone network and an FTP/Web server to provide global wireless access to the sensor data via the Internet. In addition, we plan to test the Meteor Burst Communication (MBC) technology and compare it with the LRCN.

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/14

Outputs
Target Audience: Target audiences include crop producers, environment agencies, farm equipment industry, researchers, policy makers, and students. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? This project has provided opportunities for training and professional development for 15 graduate students and 3 undergraduate interns. Five of the graduates started their careers in similar areas; three proceeded to pursue a higher degree, and four became faculty members at various universities. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Results of the studies on sediment/flow velocity sensor and three-tier wireless sensor network have been disseminated to the military and civil environment protection groups through the ESTCP sponsored demonstration project. The handheld and vehicle-based phenotypers have been demonstrated in several workshops and field days. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? FR-permittivity sensor The frequency-response (FR) permittivity sensor was redesigned to measure properties of water and biofuel. Two small sensor probes (2 cm and 2.5 cm) were designed. An attempt was made to simulate the permittivity measurement using an impedance transformation model. The sensor was tested on water samples contaminated by three types of nitrate salts and atrazine and biofuel samples contaminated by water, glycerol, and glyceride. Data were analyzed using five multivariate analysis methods. The sensor was proven to be effective in detecting these contaminants. The FR sensor also was tested for sediment concentration at Virginia Tech. A new probe for the frequency-response permittivity sensor was developed for measuring air quality parameters. The sensor was tested in quantitative detection of ethanol and ammonia and qualitative detection of glycerol in air. The results showed that the sensor is capable of detecting these contaminants in air. Precision DEM sensor A precision digital elevation measurement system was developed and tested in laboratory and field. Performance tests included tests on accuracy, noise effects, and use of gray-scale signal. The system has been used in wind erosion studies. Crop residues were studied using the gray-scale data from the laser scanner. Image processing algorithms were developed to recognize crop residues from soil background. Optical sediment/velocity sensor An optical, integrated sediment/flow velocity sensor was developed and tested in laboratory and field. The sensor used a simple structure to simultaneously measure soil sediment concentration and flow velocity in natural waters. Each sensor was equipped with an air-blast cleaning mechanism. In 2009, twelve sensors were deployed in creeks and lakes in Manhattan, Kansas, and Fort Riley. The sensor was further modified and improved in 2010 and 12 sensors were deployed in three military installations in an ESTCP sponsored demonstration program for two years. A stand-alone model of the sensor with wireless transmission was also developed. Three-tier WSN A 3-tier wireless sensor networks were installed at Fort Riley, Kansas, Fort Benning, Georgia, and Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, in an ESTCP sponsored demonstration project in 2009. A web-GIS was developed to retrieve, organize, display, and analyze the data. System maintenance, debugging, and enhancement were conducted in 2010. The system maintained operation for two years. The final report and Cost and Performance Report for the project were completed and approved by ESTCP in 2013. We co-organized an International Symposium on Wireless Sensor Network in Agriculture in November, 2010 (ISWSNA-2010), in Beijing, China. Researchers, manufacturers, and extension specialists from several countries attended the symposium. Field high-throughput phenotypers Dr. Zhang was invited to participate in an NSF-funded project on high-throughput phenotyping as a co-PI in 2013. This project is aimed at developing phenotypers to aid in studies of DNA sequencing and genotyping. In spring, 2013, two types of high-throughput phenotypers - a vehicle-based and a hand-held - were completed. Both phenotypers were field-tested extensively during summer and fall of 2014. The systems were improved during the winter of 2014 to prepare for field tests in 2015. We also completed the design of a robotic phenotyper, which will be a completely autonomous vehicle to conduct phenotyping in field and greenhouse. Construction of the robot is planned for 2015. Insect detection In 2014, we completed the phase 1 of a project on "Automatic Assessment of Biological Control Effectiveness of Trichogramma Bourarachae against Ephestia cautella Using Machine Vision", which is a collaborative research project with the King Faisal University of Saudi Arabia. Phase 2 of the project is currently underway.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2014 Citation: Crain, J., Y. Wei, J. Barker, S. Thompson, P. Alderman, M. Reynolds, N. Zhang, and J. Poland. 2014. Phenocorn - a Small, Field-based Phenotyping Platform. Field Crops Research. In review
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2014 Citation: Dvorak, J. and N. Zhang. 2014. Open channel velocity sensor geometry design using computational fluid dynamics. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. In review.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2014 Citation: Barker, J., N. Zhang, J. Sharon, R. Steeve, X. Wang, Y. Wei, J. Poland. 2014. Development of a field-based high-throughput mobile phenotyping platform. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. In review
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Zhang, N. 2014, Crop Sensing  Technologies and Applications  a Review. Proceedings of the 18th World Congress of CIGR, September 16-19; Beijing, China.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Zhang, N. 2014. Crop Sensing for Precision Agriculture and Phenotyping, a presentation at the 2nd International Summit on Precision Agriculture (ISTPA), September 12; Beijing, China.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Barker, J., Y. Wei, N. Zhang, J. Crain, and J. Poland. 2014. Crop Sensing Using Vehicle-based and Handheld High-throughput Phenotypers. Proceedings of the 18th World Congress of CIGR. September 16-19; Beijing, China

Progress 01/01/13 to 09/30/13

Outputs
Target Audience: Target audiences include crop producers, environment agencies, farm equipment industry, researchers, policy makers, and students. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? The Final Report and the Cost and Performance Report will be placed in the public domaine. The published papers will also help desseminate the technology. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Publish more papers to summarize the findings of the research.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? The final report for the project on the three-tier wireless sensor network, which was established at three military installations - Fort Riley in Kansas, Fort Benning in Georgia, and Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, was completed and approved by the funding agency ESTCP in 2013. A draft Cost and Performance Report was also submitted. Dr. Zhang was invited to participate in an NSF-funded project on high-throughput phenotyping as a co-PI in 2013. This project is aimed at developing two types of high-throughput phenotypers – a vehicle-based and a hand-held - to aid in studies of DNA sequeuencing and genotyping. In spring, 2013, the two phenotypers were completed and they were field-tested extensively during summer and fall. The systems were improved during the winter.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Zhang, N., J. Dvorak, and Y. Zhang. 2013. A correlation-based optical flowmeter for enclosed flows. Transactions of the ASABE Vol. 56(6): 1511-1522.

Progress 01/01/12 to 12/31/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Dr. Naiqian Zhang's group continued their work on sensors and wireless sensor network. Development of the stand-alone model of the optical sediment/flow velocity sensor was completed. The model was thoroughly tested in laboratory and field. The frequency-response permittivity sensor was tested in quantitative detection of ethanol and ammonia and qualitative detection of glycerol in air. The results showed that the sensor is capable of detecting these contaminants in air. Test and demonstration of the 3-tier wireless sensor network, which was established at three military installations - Fort Riley in Kansas, Fort Benning in Georgia, and Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland, was completed in 2012. Performance and cost analyses are being conducted. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals who worked on the project (at least one person month) include the following: KSU team: Dr. Naiqian Zhang (Principal investigator/project director), Derrall Oard (Technician), Joseph Dvorak (GRA), Xu Wang (GRA), Daniel Bigham (GRA), and Brenton Ware (GRA). Collaborators: Oklahoma State University: Dr. Ning Wang. Aberdeen Test Center, U.S. Army: Carl Johnson, and Scott Hill. KSU BAE Department: Dr. Ronaldo Maghirang, Dr. Stacy Hutchinson, Dr. Phil Barnes, Dr. Randy Price, Dr. James Steichen TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audiences include crop producers, environment agencies, farm equipment industry, researchers, policy makers, and students. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The 3-tier wireless sensor network has demonstrated great potential for environmental monitoring and precision agriculture. The optical sediment/velocity sensor simultaneously measures sediment concentration and flow velocity. This combined function can be used for automatic monitoring of sediment flux. The permittivity sensor may become a useful tool for measuring air quality.

Publications

• Dvorak, J. and N. Zhang. 2012. Improvements to an Optical Fluid Velocity Sensor. ASABE paper No. 121337521, American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers.
• Utley, B.C., T. M. Wynn, N. Zhang, L. E. Teany, 2012. Evaluation of a Permittivity Sensor for Continuous Monitoring of Suspended Sediment Concentration. Transactions of the ASABE Vol. 54(4): 1299-1309
• Bigham, D. and N. Zhang. 2012. Calibration and Testing of a Wireless Sediment Sensor. ASABE paper No. 121337062, American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers.
• Bigham, D. 2012. Calibration and testing of a wireless suspended sediment sensor. A master of science thesis. Kansas State University
• Dvorak, J.S. 2012. An optical water velocity sensor for open channel flows. A Ph.D. dissertation. Kansas State University
• Brenton, R.W. 2012. Frequency response based permittivity sensors for measuring air contaminants. A master of science thesis. Kansas State University

Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Dr. Naiqian Zhang's group continued their work on sensors and wireless sensor network. The optical sediment/flow velocity sensor was further modified and field tested. A stand-alone model of the sensor with wireless transmission is being developed. A new probe for the frequency-response permittivity sensor was developed for measuring air quality parameters. The 3-tier wireless sensor network was modified to improve the reliability. The network monitored sediment concentration and sediment movement at experimental sites established within Fort Riley in Kansas, Fort Benning in Georgia, and Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. Performance evaluation is underway. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals who worked on the project (at least one person month) include the following: KSU team: Dr. Naiqian Zhang (Principal investigator/project director), Wei Han (GRA), Darrell Oard (Technician), Joseph Dvorak (GRA), Xu Wang (GRA), Daniel Bigham (GRA). Collaborators: Oklahoma State University: Dr. Ning Wang. Aberdeen Test Center, U.S. Army: Carl Johnson, Steve McClung, Scott Hill. USDA Wind Erosion Laboratory: Dr. Larry Wagner, Dr. Fred Fox. TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audiences include crop producers, environment agencies, farm equipment industry, researchers, policy makers, and students. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The 3-tier wireless sensor network has demonstrated great potential for environmental monitoring and precision agriculture. The optical sediment/velocity sensor simultaneously measures sediment concentration and flow velocity. This combined function can be used for automatic monitoring of sediment flux.

Publications

• Xi, X. and N. Zhang. 2011. Measuring ethanol/gasoline mixing ratio based on the dielectric properties. Sensor Letter Vol. 9, No. 3, 2011.
• Zhang, N. 2011. Computer networking for modern agricultural equipment and facilities--wired and wireless. Proceedings of the 2011 Yangling International Agri-science Forum, Section Modern Agricultural Equipment and Information Technology. 11/05/2011; Yangling, China.
• Han, W. and N. Zhang. 2011. A three-tier wireless sensor network infrastructure for remote monitoring. Proceedings of the 17th European Conference of Information Systems in Agriculture and Forestry. Prague, Czech Republic, 07/10/2011.
• Zhang, N., S. McClung, N. Wang, C. Johnson, J. Steichen, X. Wang, D. Bigham, J. Dvorak, and D. Oard. 2011. Continuous, wireless monitoring of sediment flux within streams on military installations. Partners in Environmental Technology Technical Symposium & Workshop. 11/29/2011; Washington, D.C.
• Zhang, H., N. Zhang, and L. Wagner. 2011. Measuring Crop Residue Cover Using a Vehicle-based Laser System. ASABE paper No. 1110951, 2011 ASABE Annual International Meeting; 08/06/2011, Louisville, Kentucky.
• Wang, X., N. Zhang, W. Han. 2011. Quality of Signal Transmission on a Three-tier Wireless Sensor Network for Environmental Monitoring. ASABE paper No. 1110974. 2011 ASABE Annual International Meeting; 08/06/2011, Louisville, Kentucky.
• Zhang, N. 2011. The Internet of Things (IOT) and its Applications in Agriculture. ASABE Paper No. 1111831. 2011 ASABE Annual International Meeting; 08/06/2011, Louisville, Kentucky.
• Dvorak, J. S., N. Zhang, and Y. Zhang. 2011. An Optical Water Velocity Sensor. ASABE Paper No. 1110980, 2011 ASABE Annual International Meeting; 08/06/2011, Louisville, Kentucky.

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Dr. Naiqian Zhang's group continued their work on sensors and wireless sensor network. The precision digital elevation measurement system was completed and has been used in laboratory and field for wind erosion study. Crop residues were studied using the gray-scale data from the laser scanner. Image processing algorithms were developed to recognize crop residues from soil background. The optical sediment/flow velocity sensor was further tested in laboratory and fields. Design of the velocity sensor was further improved based on these tests. Three 3-tier wireless sensor networks were completely installed at Fort Riley, Kansas, Fort Benning, Georgia, and Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. System maintenance, debugging, and enhancement were conducted in 2010. The web-GIS system was completed and has been used for data analysis, daily report, and email alerts. The group co-organized an International Symposium on Wireless Sensor Network in Agriculture in November, 2010 (ISWSNA-2010), in Beijing, China. Researchers, manufacturers, and extension specialists from several countries attended the symposium. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals who worked on the project (at least one person month) include the following: 1. KSU team: Dr. Naiqian Zhang (Principal investigator/project director), Wei Han (GRA), Darrell Oard (Technician), Joseph Dvorak (GRA), Xu Wang (GRA), Huiquan Zhang (GRA), and Daniel Bigham (RA). 2.Collaborators: a. Oklahoma State University: Dr. Ning Wang, Peyman Taher (GRA) b. Aberdeen Test Center, U.S. Army: Carl Johnson, Gehart Grimm, Christopher Appeal, and Steve McClung c. USDA Wind Erosion Laboratory: Dr. Larry Wagner, Dr. Fred Fox TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audiences include crop producers, environment agencies, farm equipment industry, researchers, policy makers, and students. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The 3-tier concept has been recognized by peers as a significant development of wireless sensor network applied in agriculture and forestry. The precision digital elevation measurement system has found applications in conservation farming and soil/water conservation. The optical sediment/velocity sensor may be used in automatic monitoring of discharge and sediment load.

Publications

• Zhang, N. and W. Han. 2010. Three-tier Wireless Sensor Network for Environmental Monitoring. Proceedings of the XVII World Congress of CIGR. 06/16/10; Quebec City, Canada
• McClung, S., N. Zhang, N. Wang, C. Johnson, J. Steichen, W. Han, D. Oard, J. Dvorak, X. Wang, D. Bigham, and P. Taher. 2010. Continuous, wireless monitoring of sediment flux within streams on military installations. Partners in Environmental Technology Technical Symposium & Workshop. 12/01/10; Marriott Wardman Park Hotel, Washington, D.C.
• Zhang, N. S. McClung, N. Wang, C. Johnson, X. Wang, J. Dvorak, P. Taher, D. Bigham, and D. Oard. 2010. Large-scale, real-time monitoring of sediment concentration and sediment movement using three-tier wireless sensor networks. ASABE paper number 1009515. ASABE 2010 AIM, Pittsburgh, PA.
• Li, P., N. Zhang, L. Wagner. 2010. A Vehicle-based Laser System for Generating High-resolution Digital Elevation Models. ASABE paper number 1009495. ASABE 2010 AIM, Pittsburgh, PA.
• Han, W. and N. Zhang. 2010. Three-tier Wireless Sensor Network Infrastructure for Environmental Monitoring. ASABE paper number 1009514. ASABE 2010 AIM, Pittsburgh, PA.
• Zhang, N., 2010. Wireless Sensor Network and IOT in Precision Agriculture. Invited speech at the 5th Continuous Professional Development (CPD) Event, The South African Institute of Agricultural Engineers. Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa; 09/28/10.
• Zhang, N. and M. Petingo. 2010. Precision Agriculture in Rice Production: An Overview. Invited speech at the First International Symposium on Rice Production Mechanization. Huizhou, Guangdong, China. 11/16/10.

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Dr. Naiqian Zhang's group continued their work on sensors and wireless sensor networks. The Frequency-Response (FR) permittivity sensor was redesigned to measure properties of water and biofuel. Two small sensor probes (2 cm and 2.5 cm) were designed. An attempt was made to simulate the permittivity measurement using an impedance transformation model. The sensor was tested on water samples contaminated by three types of nitrate salts and atrazine and biofuel samples contaminated by water, glycerol, and glyceride. Data were analyzed using five multivariate analysis methods. The sensor was proven to be effective in detecting these contaminants. The FR sensor also was tested for sediment concentration at Virginia Tech. The precision digital elevation measurement system was tested in the laboratory. Performance tests included tests on accuracy, noise effects, and use of gray-scale signal. The optical sediment sensor was tested in the laboratory and fields. Twelve sensors were deployed in creeks and lakes in 2009. Each sensor was equipped with an air-blast cleaning mechanism. Three 3-tier wireless sensor networks were established at Fort Riley, Kansas, Fort Benning, Georgia, and Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, respectively, in 2009. A web-GIS was developed to retrieve, organize, display, and analyze the data. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals who worked on the project (at least one person month) include the following: N. Zhang (Principal investigator/project director), Kansas State University; W. Han (GRA), Kansas State University; D. Oard (Technician), Kansas State University; P. Li (GRA), Kansas State University; N. Tang (GRA), Kansas State University; S. Shultz (GRA), Kansas State University; J. Dvorak (GRA), Kansas State University; X. Wang (GRA), Kansas State University; H. Zhang (GRA), Kansas State University; Y. Zhang (GRA), Kansas State University; L. Xue (GRA), Kansas State University; A. Bauerly (RA), Kansas State University; and D. Bigham (RA), Kansas State University. Collaborators: N. Wang, (Assistant Professor) Oklahoma State University; Peyman Taher (GRA), Oklahoma State University; C. Johnson, G. Grimm, C. Appeal, and S. McClung, Aberdeen Test Center, U.S. Army. TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audiences include crop producers, environment agencies, farm equipment industry, researchers, policy makers, and students. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: No project modifications were required at this time.

Impacts
The permittivity sensor has demonstrated its capability of measuring properties of various dielectric materials. This sensor may find applications in many areas, including precision agriculture. Fouling on lenses is a common problem for optical sensors. The air-blast lens cleaning mechanism may find applications on similar sensors. The 3-tier wireless sensor network demonstrated in this study may serve as an infrastructure for various applications, including environmental monitoring, disaster alert, and precision agriculture.

Publications

• Li, P., Zhang, N., Fox, F., Wagner, L. and Oard, D. 2009. Development of a Laser System for Measuring Soil Surface Roughness. A poster presented at the 2009 ASABE Annual International Meeting. June 21-24, 2009; Reno, NV.
• Zhang, N., Tang, N., Shultz, S., Xi, X., and Oard, D. 2009. A Frequency-Response Permittivity Sensor. A poster presented at the 2009 ASABE Annual International Meeting. June 21-24, 2009; Reno, NV.
• Zhang, N., Lee, K., Tang, N., Shultz, S. and Xi, X. 2009. A Permittivity Sensor for Measuring Properties of Soil, Water, and Biofuel. Proceedings of the 2009 CIGR International Symposium of the Australian Society for Engineering in Agriculture (SEAg 2009), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, September 13-17, 2009.
• Zhang, N. and Wang, N. 2009. Wireless Sensor Network for Agriculture. 2009. Proceedings of the Eighth Fruit, Nut, and Vegetable Production Engineering Symposium (Frutic Chile 2009). January 5-9; Concepcion, Chile.
• Zhang, N. 2009. Wireless Sensor Network: in Agriculture, a renewed overview. A presentation at the Joint International Agricultural Conference (JIAC), the 3rd Asian Conference of Precision Agriculture. October 14-17, 2009; Beijing, China.
• McClung, S., Zhang, N., Wang, N., Johnson, C., Steichen, J., Han, W., Oard, D., Dvorak, J., Wang, X., Bigham, D. and Taher, P. 2009. Continuous, Wireless Monitoring of Sediment Flux within Streams on Military Installations. A poster presentation at the Partners in Environmental Technology Technical Symposium and Workshop. December 1-3, 2009. Marriott Wardman Park Hotel, Washington, D.C.
• Steichen J., Hutchinson, S., Hutchinson, S., and Zhang, N. 2009. Conducting Sustainability Research for the Army. A presentation at the 2009 Sustainability Conference. Kansas State University, January 23, 2009.
• Zhang, N., Han, W., Zhang, Y., Grimm, G., Wang, N., Bauerly, A., Xue, L., Oard, D., Steichen, J., and Otto, C. 2009. Real-time, Wireless Monitoring of Sediment Concentration. A poster presented at the 2009 ASABE Annual International Meeting. June 21-24, 2009; Reno, NV.
• Zhang, N., Tang, N., Shultz, S., and Barnes, P. 2009. A Real-time Permittivity Sensor for Simultaneous Measurement of Multiple Water-Quality Parameters. Paper presentation, Water and the Future of Kansas Conference, March 26, 2009. Capital Plaza Hotel, Topeka, KS.