PRECISION TURFGRASS MANAGEMENT USING SENSOR TECHNOLOGY EMPHASIZING SOIL MOISTURE AND SALINITY ASSESSMENTS

• Sponsoring Institution: National Institute of Food and Agriculture
• Project Status: COMPLETE
• Funding Source: HATCH
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 0209607
• Project Start Date: Feb 1, 2007
• Project End Date: Aug 30, 2012
• Program Code: [(N/A)]- (N/A)

Recipient Organization
UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA
200 D.W. BROOKS DR
ATHENS,GA 30602-5016

Performing Department
CROP & SOIL SCIENCES

Non Technical Summary
Efficient use of water resources is a high priority within Georgia and the nation. To achieve this goal on irrigated sites, requires that irrigation be based on a foundational principal of precision agriculture --- i.e., the input applied only when it is needed, only to where it is needed, and only at the rate required. However, turfgrass sites are often more spatially complex compared to agricultural sites due to the presence of numerous microclimates. Site complexity also complicates salinity management of areas with saline irrigation water. Turfgrass establishment is challenging on sites with saline irrigation water. This project focuses on: a) creative means of assessing spatial variability of soil moisture and salinity in formats that can be directly used by site managers to achieve improved water-use efficiency and conservation as well as salinity control by leaching; and b)establishing salinity tolerance criteria with respect to irrigation water for selected seeded and vegetatively established grasses.

Animal Health Component

20%

Research Effort Categories

Basic

50%

Applied

20%

Developmental

30%

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
103	0110	2010	40%
111	0210	2010	50%
111	2130	1020	10%

Knowledge Area
103 - Management of Saline and Sodic Soils and Salinity; 111 - Conservation and Efficient Use of Water;

Subject Of Investigation
2130 - Turf; 0110 - Soil; 0210 - Water resources;

Field Of Science
2010 - Physics; 1020 - Physiology;

Keywords

turfgrass

water conservation

water-use efficiency

salinity

salinity monitoring

soil sensors

establishment

irrigation water quality

Goals / Objectives
I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture (ET), spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass: in order to: a) make irrigation system improvements; b) improve irrigation scheduling with spatial ET data, and c) make site-specific management decisions. B. Evaluate potential irrigation scheduling soil protocols based on soil-based approaches using multiple depth, capacitance sensors compared with climatic methods for water-use efficiency and effects on plant performance. C. Spatial mapping of community sports fields to improve irrigation system application uniformity, irrigation scheduling, cultivation programming, and other site-specific management for turf performance and player safety. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate a mobile EC salinity sensor system with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. III. SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. A. Investigate the salinity tolerance of seeded and vegetative seashore paspalums to identify the most tolerant ecotypes and define the best screening protocol. B. Evaluate seashore paspalums for drought resistance to identify ecotypes with the best overall drought resistance and to define efficient screening protocols.

Project Methods
I. SENSOR-BASED IRRIGATION SCHEDULING. A. Spatial ET Mapping. The initial study will use a mobile unit with GPS capability with time-domain reflectrometry (TDR) probes of 10 cm depth, a Green-Seeker spectral unit (for NDVI, IR/R), and penetrometer resistance (psi) will be used to map selected treatment plot areas on golf course fairways during dry-downs following irrigation or rainfall. Hand-held devices will also be used to determine most characteristics. B. Irrigation Scheduling by Soil-Based Methods. This study would be conducted at Griffin, GA using TifSport bermudagrass on a sandy, clay loam soil with kaolinite clay. The study would run for at least a two year period. The site consists of 15 plots of 4.6 x 4/6 m square and separated by 0.76 m borders from the adjacent plots. Each plot has pop-up quarter circle spray heads with a 15 feet range and each plot can be irrigated separately from the others. Treatments will be designed to evaluate irrigation by soil-based means only, weather station based only, and combinations of approaches. Five treatments with 3 reps each will be in a randomized complete block design. C. Spatial Mapping of Community Sports Fields. The unit described in Study I-A will be used in this project along with possible additional modifications for other parameters to be measured. Also, hand-held devices that have the potential to be automated in a mobile unit will be used. Several sports fields will be monitored for spatial variation during dry-downs following irrigation and following rainfall in terms of selected parameters. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. EC Salinity Sensor Field Monitoring System. This study will be conducted on a seashore paspalum golf course in Naples, FL with irrigation water of 6000 ppm salinity (ECe = 8 dS/m). The researcher will investigate the potential to develop a turf specific probe based on the 4-wenner array method with GPS/GIS capability with possible additions of other sensor for other parameters. III. SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. A. Salinity Tolerance of Seeded and Vegetative Seashore Paspalum Ecotypes During Establishment. Studies will be conducted in the greenhouse and/or growth chamber. Grasses will be established in treatments over the 0 to 18 dS/m range in a sandy loam soil. B. Drought Resistance of Seashore Paspalum Ecotypes. The first protocol will use a Rain Out Shelter (ROS) with a deep sandy loam soil. Plants with replications will be transplanted from the greenhouse into a spaced grid, irrigated for three weeks, and then irrigation withheld to determine drought responses in terms of growth and leaf firing. The second protocol will utilize greemhouse screening with deep PVC tubes.

Progress 02/01/07 to 08/30/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In 2012, the emphasis was on completion of final phases of developing three field applications based on Precision Turf Management (PTM) in cooperation with The Toro Company. The three field applications deal with enhancing water conservation and improving salinity management on sites irrigated with saline irrigation water. This research is based on intensive site-mapping using the Toro Precision Sense Mobile Mapping Device - measures soil water content, soil salinity, penetrometer resistance, plant performance using spectral reflection, and topography slope and aspect; all of which are GPS labeled and allows use of GIS (geostatistical information system) for data analysis and presentation with the decision-making report made using Google Earth as well as a written component. The target is for availability in 2012 by Toro in two of their distributor regions and full availability nationally and internationally beginning in 2013. The three field applications are: 1) New Water/Irrigation Audit Approach - wall to wall, mapping under drier conditions; 2) Enhanced Irrigation Scheduling Water Conservation/Efficiency - mapping at field capacity that will allow analysis of each irrigation head to determine a specific irrigation program based on soil type, slope, and slope aspect; as well as to provide information on optimum soil moisture sensor placement with the fewest sensor; and 3) New Salinity Mapping Audit - soil salinity level and distribution to determine site-specific leaching programs for each irrigation head, and for proper placement of soil salinity sensors using the fewest possible sensors. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. R. N. Carrow. PI. Developed project and coordinates. Dr. Ian Flitcroft. Research Engineer II and Instructor (GPS/GIS). Provides technical support for mobile platform devices and research studies. The Toro Company, Bloomington, MN. Supplies funding, equipment and collabrates on research projects. Project involves MS graduate student project and training. Also, workshops are presented for professional turfgrass managers on sensor technology and spatial/temporal mapping. TARGET AUDIENCES: Scientific community interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Professional turfgrass managers interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Educational efforts include: a) half day to 2-day workshops to professional turfgrass managers at the state, national, and international levels, b) development of web-based Best Management Practices templates for water conservation that incorporate research efforts, c) development of Precision Turfgrass Management protocols for improving site-specific management based on Precision Agriculture concepts. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
The development of the decision-support system report format for each of the three field applications allowed software programmers to develop software that would integrate all the data into a final report in a timely fashion. By this approach we have demonstrated how new concepts (PTM, use of spatial data to develop improved water and salinity management programs), technology (mobile sensor device), and creative delivery systems (Google Earth) can be used to provide practical but detailed decision-support system information packages to site managers. Impacts for the three field applications are: 1) New Water/Irrigation Audit Approach - wall to wall, mapping under drier conditions. This allows soil water spatial variability to be determined at various spatial levels down to each irrigation head as well as assessing spacing of irrigation heads. This information is essential to make irrigation system/design changes to enhance uniformity and efficiency of irrigation delivery. 2) Enhanced Irrigation Scheduling Water Conservation/Efficiency - mapping at field capacity that will allow analysis of each irrigation head to determine a specific irrigation program based on soil type, slope, and slope aspect; as well as to provide information on optimum soil moisture sensor placement with the fewest sensors. And 3) New Salinity Mapping Audit - soil salinity level and distribution to determine site-specific leaching programs for each irrigation head that enhances water-use efficiency while improving salt management, and for proper placement of soil salinity sensors using the fewest possible sensors.

Publications

• Carrow, R. N. 2012. Turfgrass nutrition and irrigation water quality. Comm. in Soil Sci. and Plant Analysis 43, issue 1-2: 451-463.

Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In 2011, the emphasis was on completion of final phases of developing three field applications based on Precision Turf Management (PTM) in cooperation with The Toro Company. The three field applications deal with enhancing water conservation and improving salinity management on sites irrigated with saline irrigation water. This research is based on intensive site-mapping using the Toro Precision Sense Mobile Mapping Device - measures soil water content, soil salinity, penetrometer resistance, plant performance using spectral reflection, and topography slope and aspect; all of which are GPS labeled and allows use of GIS (geostatistical information system) for data analysis and presentation with the decision-making report made using Google Earth as well as a written component. In 2011, we worked with Toro in development of software programs to integrate the spatial mapping data into final decision support documents for the end user --- turfgrass managers. The target is for availability in 2012 by Toro in two of their distributor regions and full availability nationally and internationally beginning in 2013. The three field applications are: 1) New Water/Irrigation Audit Approach - wall to wall, mapping under drier conditions; 2) Enhanced Irrigation Scheduling Water Conservation/Efficiency - mapping at field capacity that will allow analysis of each irrigation head to determine a specific irrigation program based on soil type, slope, and slope aspect; as well as to provide information on optimum soil moisture sensor placement with the fewest sensors. Completed in late 2011; and 3) New Salinity Mapping Audit - soil salinity level and distribution to determine site-specific leaching programs for each irrigation head, and for proper placement of soil salinity sensors using the fewest possible sensors. Will be completed in early 2012. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. R. N. Carrow. PI. Developed project and coordinates. Dr. Ian Flitcroft. Research Engineer II and Instructor (GPS/GIS). Provides technical support for mobile platform devices and research studies. The Toro Company, Bloomington, MN. Supplies funding, equipment and collabrates on research projects. Project involves MS graduate student project and training. Also, workshops are presented for professional turfgrass managers on sensor technology and spatial/temporal mapping. TARGET AUDIENCES: Scientific community interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Professional turfgrass managers interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Educational efforts include: a) half day to 2-day workshops to professional turfgrass managers at the state, national, and international levels, b) development of web-based Best Management Practices templates for water conservation that incorporate research efforts, c) development of Precision Turfgrass Management protocols for improving site-specific management based on Precision Agriculture concepts. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The development of the decision-support system report format for each of the three field applications allowed software programmers to develop software that would integrate all the data into a final report in a timely fashion. By this approach we have demonstrated how new concepts (PTM, use of spatial data to develop improved water and salinity management programs), technology (mobile sensor device), and creative delivery systems (Google Earth) can be used to provide practical but detailed decision-support system information packages to site managers. Impacts for the three field applications are: 1) New Water/Irrigation Audit Approach - wall to wall, mapping under drier conditions. This allows soil water spatial variability to be determined at various spatial levels down to each irrigation head as well as assessing spacing of irrigation heads. This information is essential to make irrigation system/design changes to enhance uniformity and efficiency of irrigation delivery. 2) Enhanced Irrigation Scheduling Water Conservation/Efficiency - mapping at field capacity that will allow analysis of each irrigation head to determine a specific irrigation program based on soil type, slope, and slope aspect; as well as to provide information on optimum soil moisture sensor placement with the fewest sensors. And 3) New Salinity Mapping Audit - soil salinity level and distribution to determine site-specific leaching programs for each irrigation head that enhances water-use efficiency while improving salt management, and for proper placement of soil salinity sensors using the fewest possible sensors.

Publications

• Carrow, R. N. and R. R. Duncan. 2011. Best Management Practices for Saline and Sodic Turfgrass Soils: Assessment and Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 456 p.
• Krum, J. M., I. Flitcroft, P. Gerber, and R. N. Carrow. 2011. Performance of a mobile salinity monitoring device developed for turfgrass situations. Agron. J. 103(1):23-31.
• Carrow, R. N., Duncan, R. R. 2011. Salinity in soils. In Book Chapter in 'Turfgrass Water Conservation', B. Leinauer and S. Cockerham (Ed.), Tech. Pub. 3523. ANR Communications Service, University of California. (pp. 81-100). Riverside, CA.
• Carrow, R. N. (2011). Wear Injury on Sports Fields: BMP Approach. SportsTurf 27(10): 12-15.
• Carrow, R. N., Cline, V. (2011). Precision turf management: a new water audit based on soil moisture. Golf Course Management 79(8): 76-80.
• Carrow, R. N., Duncan, R. R. (2011). Bicarbonates and carbonates in irrigation water and soils. Golf Course Management 79(11): 92-99.
• Carrow, R. N., Cline, V. (2011). Precision turfgrass management for athletic fields SportsTurf 27(7):16-21.
• Carrow, R. N., Duncan, R. R. (2011). Best management practices for salt-affected golf courses: why and how. USGA Green Section Record 49(26): 1-5.
• Carrow, R. N. (2011). Water challenges: quantity and quality. Asian Golf Business 34(6):66-71.

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: OUTPUTS: I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. In 2010, the focus has been on using past spatial mapping data from complex golf course fairway sites at field capacity to present in a manner that allows results to be integrated into an irrigation decision-making process on a site-specific basis and for a science-based means to locate soil sensors. The method being evaluated, assigns each irrigation head to an irrigation head site-specific management unit (i.e., IH-SSMU) based on soil water-holding capacity at field capacity, degree of slope, and slope aspect. Also in 2010, we are refining how to use spatial soil moisture mapping data obtained during dry periods, for a more robust water audit approach than the current catch-can method that would assess soil water distribution across the whole area and for each irrigation head. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. In 2010, the focus has been on using salinity spatial mapping data from complex golf course fairway sites at field capacity taken in 2009 and 2010 to present in a manner that allows results to be integrated into an site-specific salinity leaching program and for a science-based means to locate salinity soil sensors. The method being evaluated, assigns each irrigation head to an irrigation head site-specific salinity management unit (i.e., IH-SSU) based on soil salinity at field capacity. Evaluation of a 4-Wenner array electrical resistance mobile platform for salinity mapping was completed and the initial evaluation of a salinity monitoring device based on a soil capacitance/frequency domain sensor was conducted. PARTICIPANTS: PARTICIPANTS: Dr. R. N. Carrow. PI. Developed project and coordinates. Joseph Krum. Research Professional II. Conducts on-site data collection, data analyses, GIS analysis. James Hudson. Agriculture Mechanical I. Conducts greenhouse and field studies, does lab analyses. Dr. Ian Flitcroft. Research Engineer II and Instructor (GPS/GIS). Provides technical support for mobile platform devices and research studies. The Toro Company, Bloomington, MN. Supplies funding, equipment and collabrates on research projects. Project involves MS graduate student project and training. Also, workshops are presented for professional turfgrass managers on sensor technology and spatial/temporal mapping. TARGET AUDIENCES: TARGET AUDIENCES: Scientific community interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Professional turfgrass managers interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Educational efforts include: a) half day to 2-day workshops to professional turfgrass managers at the state, national, and international levels, b) development of web-based Best Management Practices templates for water conservation that incorporate research efforts, c) development of Precision Turfgrass Management protocols for improving site-specific management based on Precision Agriculture concepts. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture (ET), spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass. Since the mobile sensor platforms used in this study are the first and only such devices with multiple sensor capability to spatially map VWC and soil compaction in a rapid manner over large turfgrass areas, we continue to develop and refine protocols for specific field applications as foundational requirements to a fostering Precision Turfgrass Management (PTM). Specific protocols (appropriate mapping equipment, mapping procedures, data presentation, supplemental soil sampling, data analysis, and end-customer delivery) are for the field problems: identify problem areas in irrigation design, system performance, or scheduling; determine how best to identify Site-Specific Management Units (SSUM); develop where to place in-situ soil sensors arrays based on SSMU; use of VWC data taken over dry-downs to assist in site specific irrigation; and use of VWC taken during dry periods to evaluate irrigation system uniformity - i.e., new water audit procedure. The initial papers defining and discussing PTM concepts and foundations with comparisons to Precision Agriculture were published in 2008 with additional papers 2009 and 2010. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate a mobile EC salinity sensor system with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. This is the first mobile salinity mapping platform (completed in fall 2008) developed to determine soil electrical conductivity (EC) at three soil depths along with NDVI plant performance, that allow us to develop specific protocols for spatial and temporal mapping of soil salinity and how to use this information for salinity management by efficient site-specific leaching. Several field mapping events have been conducted in 2009 and 2010 under conditions of increasing salinity and leaching on a salt-affected golf course in Naples, FL. This device has proven to be very accurate but too slow. Thus, a newer device based on a soil capacitance/frequency domain sensor was evaluated in 2010 and this device also is highly accurate. This project has the potential of substantially altering salinity management approaches on large landscape areas by reducing water requirement for salt leaching and identifying sites for in-place salinity sensor placement. III.SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. The final study of this objective was completed in late 2009.

Publications

• Carrow, R. N. and R. R. Duncan. 2011. Best Management Practices for Saline and Sodic Turfgrass Soils: Assessment and Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (in press).
• Flitcroft, I., J. M. Kurm, R. N. Carrow, K. Rice, T. Carson, and V. Cline. 2010. Spatial mapping of penetrometer resistance on turfgrass soils for site-specific cultivation. 10th Inter. Precision Agric. Conference. 18-21 July, 2010. Denver, CO. www.icpaonline.org/finalpdf/abstract_202.pdf
• Krum, J. M., I. Flitcroft, P. Gerber, and R. N. Carrow. 2011. Performance of a mobile salinity monitoring device developed for turfgrass situations. Agron. J. 103(1):23-31.
• Carrow, R.N. 2010. Sustainability: time to be proactive. SportsTurf 26: 18-22.

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture, spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass. A study was initiated and in 2008 with mapping of several golf course fairways in MN to investigate fairway diversity and include penetrometer resistance mapping. The focus is to use spatial mapping of volumetric water content (VWC), penetrometer resistance, and NDVI to identify variation in penetrometer resistance at field capacity that may be useful to delineate site-specific cultivation rather than whole fairway cultivation. Data from this study is in the process of developing a journal paper. B. Evaluate potential irrigation scheduling soil protocols based on soil-based approaches using multiple depth, capacitance sensors compared with climatic methods for water-use efficiency and effects on plant performance. In this study component, the focus in 2009-2010 has been to use site-specific management units (SSMUs) based on VWC at field capacity to identify similar areas in terms of moisture retention for placement of in-place soil sensors on several golf course fairways to demonstrate potential for irrigation scheduling. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate two (a hand-held and a mobile sensor-platform) EC salinity sensor systems (based on 4-wenner array electrical resistance) with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. The mobile sensor platform device was used for field scale salinity mapping on the same golf course fairways of a salt-affected site in Naples, FL on 4 dates in 2009. A research paper is in progress on this phase. The hand-held device was completed for field testing in 2010. III. SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. A. Investigate the salinity tolerance of seeded and vegetative seashore paspalums to identify the most tolerant ecotypes and define the best screening protocol. Completed in 2007. B. Evaluate seashore paspalums for drought resistance to identify ecotypes with the best overall drought resistance and to define efficient screening protocols. The field study related to this objective was completed in fall of 2009. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. R. N. Carrow. PI. Developed project and coordinates. Joseph Krum. Research Professional II. Conducts on-site data collection, data analyses, GIS analysis. James Hudson. Agriculture Mechanical I. Conducts greenhouse and field studies, does lab analyses. Dr. Ian Flitcroft. Research Engineer II and Instructor (GPS/GIS). Provides technical support for mobile platform devices and research studies. The Toro Company, Bloomington, MN. Supplies funding, equipment and collabrates on research projects. Project involves MS graduate student project and training. Also, workshops are presented for professional turfgrass managers on sensor technology and spatial/temporal mapping. TARGET AUDIENCES: Scientific community interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Professional turfgrass managers interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Educational efforts include: a) half day to 2-day workshops to professional turfgrass managers at the state, national, and international levels, b) development of web-based Best Management Practices templates for water conservation that incorporate research efforts, c) development of Precision Turfgrass Management protocols for improving site-specific management based on Precision Agriculture concepts. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture (ET), spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass. Since the mobile sensor platforms used in this study are the first and only such devices with multiple sensor capability to spatially map VWC and soil compaction in a rapid manner over large turfgrass areas, we continue to develop and refine protocols for specific field applications as foundational requirements to a fostering Precision Turfgrass Management (PTM). Specific protocols (appropriate mapping equipment, mapping procedures, data presentation, supplemental soil sampling, data analysis, and end-customer delivery) are for the field problems: identify problem areas in irrigation design, system performance, or scheduling; determine how best to identify Site-Specific Management Units (SSUM); develop where to place in-situ soil sensors arrays based on SSMU; use of VWC data taken over dry-downs to assist in site specific irrigation; and use of VWC taken during dry periods to evaluate irrigation system uniformity - i.e., new water audit procedure. The initial papers defining and discussing PTM concepts and foundations with comparisons to Precision Agriculture were published in 2008 with additional papers 2009. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate a mobile EC salinity sensor system with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. This is the first and only mobile salinity mapping platform (completed in fall 2008) developed to determine soil electrical conductivity (EC) at three soil depths along with NDVI plant performance, that allow us to develop specific protocols for spatial and temporal mapping of soil salinity and how to use this information for salinity management by efficient site-specific leaching. Several field mapping events have been conducted in 2009 under conditions of increasing salinity and leaching on a salt-affected golf course in Naples, FL. This project has the potential of substantially altering salinity management approaches on large landscape areas by reducing water requirement for salt leaching and identifying sites for in-place salinity sensor placement. III.SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. The final study of this objective was completed in late 2009.

Publications

• 1. Duncan, R. R., R. N. Carrow, and M. Huck. 2009. Turfgrass and Landscape Irrigation Water Quality: Assessment and Management. Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.. 464 pages. (Book).
• 2. Carrow, R. N. and R. R. Duncan. 2010. Salinity in soils. In. B. Leinauer and S. Cockerham (eds.). Turfgrass Water Conservation. 2nd edition. ANR Communications Service, University of California, Riverside, CA. (In press) (Book Chapter)
• 3. Carrow, R. N. and R. R. Duncan. 2010. Best Management Practices for Saline and Sodic Turfgrass Soils: Assessment and Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (in process for submission in August 2010).
• 4. Carrow, R. N, J. M. Krum, I. Flitcroft, and V. Cline. 2010. Precision turfgrass management: challenges and field applications for mapping turfgrass soils and stress. Precision Agriculture 11(2): 115-134. DOI 10.1007/s11119-009-9136y. (published online 20 August 2009).
• 5. Krum, J. M., R. N. Carrow, and K. Karnok. (2010). Spatial mapping of complex turfgrass sites: site-specific management units and protocols. Crop Science 50 (1); 301-315.
• 6. Carrow, R. N., J. Krum, and C. Hartwiger. 2009. Precision turfgrass management: A new concept for efficient application of inputs. USGA Turfgrass and Environ. Res. Online 8(13): 1-12.

Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture (ET), spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass. A new study was initiated and completed in 2008 using a 9-hole golf course in MN to investigate whole course diversity and include penetrometer resistance mapping. The focus is to use spatial mapping of volumetric water content (VWC), penetrometer resistance, and NDVI for several field applications, namely: identify problem areas in irrigation design, system performance, or scheduling; determining how best to identify Site-Specific Management Units (SSUM); use VWC data taken over dry-downs to assist in site specific irrigation; to use VWC data obtained during dry periods to evaluate irrigation system uniformity; and investigate use of penetrometer data for site-specific cultivation purposes. Data from this study is under analysis. B. Evaluate potential irrigation scheduling soil protocols based on soil-based approaches using multiple depth, capacitance sensors compared with climatic methods for water-use efficiency and effects on plant performance. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate a mobile EC salinity sensor system with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. The experimental device was completed in early-fall 2008 for initial testing of performance and field worthiness. Field scale salinity mapping was initiated in January 2009 on a golf course. A study at Griffin, GA on 3 soil situations and 3 salinity levels was completed in late fall of 2008 using this device to monitor soil salinity. This study is under data analysis and writing. III. SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. A. Investigate the salinity tolerance of seeded and vegetative seashore paspalums to identify the most tolerant ecotypes and define the best screening protocol. Completed in 2007. B. Evaluate seashore paspalums for drought resistance to identify ecotypes with the best overall drought resistance and to define efficient screening protocols. The field study related to this objective is ongoing thru summer of 2009. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. R. N. Carrow. PI. Developed project and coordinates. Joseph Krum. Research Professional II. Conducts on-site data collection, data analyses, GIS analysis. James Hudson. Agriculture Mechanical I. Conducts greenhouse and field studies, does lab analyses. Dr. Ian Flitcroft. Research Engineer II and Instructor (GPS/GIS). Provides technical support for mobile platform devices and research studies. The Toro Company, Bloomington, MN. Supplies funding, equipment and collabrates on research projects. Project involves MS graduate student project and training. Also, workshops are presented for professional turfgrass managers on sensor technology and spatial/temporal mapping. TARGET AUDIENCES: Scientific community interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Professional turfgrass managers interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Educational efforts include: a) half day to 2-day workshops to professional turfgrass managers at the state, national, and international levels, b) development of web-based Best Management Practices templates for water conservation that incorporate research efforts, c) development of Precision Turfgrass Management protocols for improving site-specific management based on Precision Agriculture concepts. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture (ET), spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass. Since the mobile sensor platforms used in this study are the first and only such devices with multiple sensor capability to spatially map VWC and soil compaction in a rapid manner over large turfgrass areas, we continue to develop and refine protocols for specific field applications related to water-use efficiency and conservation and site-specific cultivation. These are foundational to a fostering Precision Turfgrass Management (PTM). Specific protocols (protocols include: appropriate mapping equipment, mapping procedures, data presentation, supplemental soil sampling, data analysis, and end-customer delivery) are for the field problems such as: identify problem areas in irrigation design, system performance, or scheduling; determine how best to identify Site-Specific Management Units (SSUM); develop where to place in-situ soil sensors arrays based on SSMU; use of VWC data taken over dry-downs to assist in site specific irrigation; and use of VWC taken during dry periods to evaluate irrigation system uniformity - i.e., new water audit procedure. The initial papers defining and discussing PTM concepts and foundations with comparisons to Precision Agriculture were published in 2008 and more are in development for 2009. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate a mobile EC salinity sensor system with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. This is the first and only mobile salinity mapping platform (completed in fall 2008) developed to determine soil electrical conductivity (EC) at three soil depths along with NDVI plant performance, that allow us to develop specific protocols for spatial and temporal mapping of soil salinity and how to use this information for salinity management by efficient site-specific leaching. Our initial study on mapping under different soil types to develop generic calibration relationships to laboratory based saturated paste extract (ECe) soil salinity and to refine initial protocols was completed in late fall 2008. This project has the potential of substantially altering salinity management approaches on large landscape areas. III.SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. The final study of this objective is in progress thru 2009.

Publications

• Duncan, R. R., R. N. Carrow, and M. Huck. 2008. Turfgrass and Landscape Irrigation Water Quality: Assessment and Management. Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.. 464 pages. (Book).
• Carrow, R. N. and R. R. Duncan. 2009. Salinity in soils. In. B. Leinauer and S. Cockerham (eds.). Turfgrass Water Conservation. 2nd edition. ANR Communications Service, University of California, Riverside, CA. (In press) (Book Chapter)
• Waltz Jr., F.C. and Carrow, R.N. 2008. Applied turfgrass water-use efficiency and conservation: Agronomic practices and building cooperation between industry trade associations and regulatory authorities. Proc. of the 2nd International Conference on Turfgrass Science and Management of Sports Fields. Acta Horticulturae 783:239-246 http://www.actahort.org/books/783/783_24.htm
• Lee, G. L., R. N. Carrow and R. R. Duncan. 2008. Identification of new soluble sugars accumulated in a halophytic seashore paspalum ecotype under salinity stress. Hort. Environ. Biotechnol. 49(1): 13-19.
• Krum, J. M., Carrow, R.N., I. Flitcroft, and V. Cline. 2008. Mobile mapping of spatial soil properties and turfgrass stress: Applications and protocols. 9th Proc. Confer. Precision Agric., 9th, Denver, CO. 20-23 July 2008. Available on CD-ROM, p. 236-251. http://www.icpaonline.org/. (Proceedings article).
• Raymer, P. L., S. K. Braman, L.L Burpee, R. N. Carrow, Z. Chen, and T. R. Murphy. 2008. Seashore paspalum: Breeding a turfgrass for the future. USGA Green Section Record 46(1): 22-26.
• Raymer, P. L., S. K. Braman, L.L Burpee, R. N. Carrow, Z. Chen, and T. R. Murphy. 2008. Seashore paspalum: Breeding a turfgrass for the future. Australian Turfgrass Management 10(2): 46-49. Same article as no. 2 but reprinted in ATM.
• Carrow, R. N., C. Waltz, and M. Chappell. 2008. Seven key strategies for fostering state-BMPs for water conservation in the green industries of Georgia. GTA Today 23(1): 5-6.
• Carrow, R. N., F. C. Waltz, and K. Fletcher. 2008. Environmental stewardship requires a successful plan: Can the turfgrass industry state one USGA Green Section Record 46(2): 25-32.
• Krum, J. and R. N. Carrow. 2008. Precision turfgrass management and irrigation practices. Golf Course Manage. 76(7): 88-92.
• Carrow, R. N. 2008. Drought, water restrictions, and community sports fields. SportsTurf 24(6): 8-12.
• Carrow, R. N. 2008. Water conservation and sod industry. GA Sod Prod. Assoc. News. 18(2): 23-27.
• Carrow, R. N. 2008. Managing sports fields during water restrictions. SportsTurf 24(8): 20-26.

Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
OUTPUTS: I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture (ET), spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass. Spatial mapping was conducted in the summer of 2007 on a golf course. This data has been analyzed and written as a MS thesis to be completed in early 2008. The focus is using the spatial mapping of volumetric water content (VWC) and NDVI to: identify problem areas in irrigation design, system performance, or scheduling; determining how best to identify Site-Specific Management Units (SSUM); and to use VWC data taken over dry-downs to assist in site specific irrigation. Procedures developed in this initial study will be our initial protocols for future studies and refinement of protocols. B. Evaluate potential irrigation scheduling soil protocols based on soil-based approaches using multiple depth, capacitance sensors compared with climatic methods for water-use efficiency and effects on plant performance. All research for this objective has been completed and is under analysis. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate a mobile EC salinity sensor system with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. The experimental device was completed in mid-fall for initial testing of performance and field worthiness. Final testing will be conducted in spring 2008 and a salt monitoring study initiated. III. SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. A. Investigate the salinity tolerance of seeded and vegetative seashore paspalums to identify the most tolerant ecotypes and define the best screening protocol. Studies were completed related to this objective during 2007. B. Evaluate seashore paspalums for drought resistance to identify ecotypes with the best overall drought resistance and to define efficient screening protocols. The field study related to this objective is ongoing. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. R. N. Carrow. PI. Developed project and coordinates. Joseph Krum. MS student and Research Professional II. Conducts on-site data collection, data analyses, GIS analysis. James Hudson. Agriculture Mechanical I. Conducts greenhouse and field studies, does lab analyses. Dr. Ian Flitcroft. Research Engineer II and Instructor (GPS/GIS). Provides technical support for mobile platform devices and research studies. The Toro Company, Bloomington, MN. Supplies funding, equipment and collabrates on research projects. Project involves MS graduate student project and training. Also, workshops are presented for professional turfgrass managers on sensor technology and spatial/temporal mapping. TARGET AUDIENCES: Scientific community interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Professional turfgrass managers interested in using sensor technology for specific applications related to improving landscape water-use efficiency and conservation and salinity mapping. Educational efforts include: a) half day to 2-day workshops to professional turfgrass managers at the state, national, and international levels, b) development of web-based Best Management Practices templates for water conservation that incorporate research efforts.

Impacts
I. WATER CONSERVATION /PRECISION MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate by spatial mapping soil moisture (ET), spectral plant stress, and soil compaction during dry-down periods on turfgrass. Since the mobile sensor platforms used in this study are the first and only such devices with multiple sensor capability to spatially map VWC and soil compaction in a rapid manner over large turfgrass areas, the protocols we are developing for specific field problems related to water-use efficiency and conservation are foundational to a fostering Precision Turfgrass Management. Specific protocols (protocols include: equipment, mapping, data presentation, data analysis, and end-customer delivery) are for the field problems such as: identify problem areas in irrigation design, system performance, or scheduling; determine how best to identify Site-Specific Management Units (SSUM); develop where to place in-situ soil senors arrays based on SSMU; and to use VWC data taken over dry-downs to assist in site specific irrigation. II. SENSOR-BASED SALINITY MANAGEMENT. A. Evaluate a mobile EC salinity sensor system with capability of multiple depth salinity sensing and integration of the information into a GPS/GIS approach for improved salinity management. Since this is the first and only mobile salinity mapping platform developed to determine soil electrical conductivity (EC) at three soil depths along with NDVI plant performance, this will allow us to develop specific protocols for spatial and temporal mapping of soil salinity and how to use this information for salinity management by efficient site-specific leaching. Our intial study is on mapping under different soil types to develop generic calibration relationships to laboratory based saturated paste extract (ECe) soil salinity and to refine initial protocols. This project has the potential of substantially altering salinity management approches on large landscape areas. III.SALINITY AND DROUGHT RESISTANCE STUDIES ON SEASHORE PASPALUM. A. Investigate the salinity tolerance of seeded and vegetative seashore paspalums to identify the most tolerant ecotypes and define the best screening protocol. Results have shown: that there is limited genotypic salinity tolerance at establishment by vegetative methods; and vegetative salinity tolerance is approximately 1/4 to 1/3 that of mature plants.

Publications

• Jiang,Y. and R. N. Carrow. 2007. Broadband spectral reflectance models of turfgrass species and cultivars to drought stress. Crop Sci. 47: 1611-1618.
• Lee, G. L., R. N. Carrow, and R. R. Duncan. 2007. Synthesis of organic osmolytes and salt tolerance mechanisms in Paspalum vaginatum. Environmental and Experimental Botany. (Available on-line as of 11 Oct. 2007).
• Lee, G.L., R. R. Duncan, and R. N. Carrow. 2007. Nutrient uptake responses and inorganic ion contribution to solute potential under salinity stress in halophytic seashore paspalums. Crop Sci. 47: 2504-2512.
• Waltz, F.C. and R. N. Carrow. 2007. Applied turfgrass water-use efficiency/conservation: Agronomic practices and building cooperation between industry trade associations and regulatory agencies. ActaHort. (accepted, 8-07; in press).
• Carrow, R.N. and R.R. Duncan. 2008. Turfgrass BMPs for water resources: Holistic-systems approach. In. M. Kenna and J.B. Beard (eds.). Water Quality and Quantity Issues for Turfgrasses in Urban Landscapes. CAST Special Pub. 26. CAST, Ames, IA. (In press) (Book Chapter)
• Carrow, R. N., V. Cline, and J. Krum. 2007. Monitoring spatial variability in soil properties and turfgrass stress: Applications and protocols. Proc. 2007 Inter. Irrigation Conference. 9-11 Dec. 2007. San Diego, CA. p. 641-645. Irr. Assoc., Falls Church, VA.
• Carrow, R. N., V. Cline, and J. Krum. 2007. Monitoring spatial variability in soil moisture, salinity, hardness, and turf stress. Amer. Soc. of Agon. (ASA) Special Symposium C5/C6 Division: Evaluating Grasslands with Remote Sensing and Georeferenced Sampling. 4-8 Nov. 2007. New Orleans, LA. ASA Abstr. (Invited paper).
• Krum, J. and R. N. Carrow. 2007. Site assessment of soil moisture conditions on golf courses. ASA Meetings, New Orleans, LA. ASA Abstr.
• Carrow, R.N. and K. Fletcher. 2007. Environmental management systems: A new standard for environmental management is coming. USGA Green Section Record. 45(4): 23-27.
• Carrow, R.N. and K. Fletcher. 2007. The devil is in the details: EMS and golf courses. USGA Green Section Record. 45(5): 26-33.
• Carrow, R. N., C. Waltz, and M. Esoda. 2008. Beyond site specific best management practices for water conservation. Golf Course Manage. 76(1): 164-169.
• Carrow, R. N., C. Waltz, and K. Fletcher. 2007. Environmental stewartship requires a successful plan: Can the turfgrass industry state one? GTA Today 22(6): 1, 6.