Progress 10/01/04 to 09/30/10
Outputs
OUTPUTS: During this period, the project generated four outputs in the form of publications, and one output in the form of presentations at professional conferences. PARTICIPANTS: Principal Investigator: Joseph H. Pleck, Ph.D. (Other staff on this project were not supported by the agency). Partner Organizations: Johns Hopkins University, University of Maryland, Cornell University, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audience for the project research outputs are other researchers as well as developers of educational and intervention programs, and policy makers. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
In addition to ongoing empirical analyses, the project generated two chapters presenting new theory. The first chapter developed a new conceptualization of the construct of father involvement, revising the conceptualization that Michael Lamb and I developed in 1985 (engagement, accessibility, responsibility). The reconceptualization includes three primary components: 1) positive engagement activities, 2) warmth and responsiveness, and 3) control. It also includes two auxiliary domains: 4) indirect care, and 5) process responsibility. The primary components reflect the predominant ways that involvement is actually operationalized in current research. Use of these core dimensions integrates investigation of father involvement more closely with the broader field of parenting research. The auxiliary domains clarify the two distinct aspects of the original responsibility component. Data on the empirical interrelationships among the five components, their levels, and the extent to which these levels have changed in recent decades are then reviewed. The chapter analyzes why and how components of father involvement might have direct positive influences on child development. Several possible sources for theorizing paternal influences are examined. I develop a parental capital framework for understanding the possible direct influences of paternal involvement outcomes. This parental capital model employs concepts from social capital theory, parental style research, and Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective. The second chapter develops a conceptual analysis of the relationship between fatherhood and masculinity. It introduces the Fatherhood-Masculinity Model as a conceptual framework, which distinguishes fatherhood as a parental status from fatherhood as parenting behavior and identity, and differentiating between masculinity as male gender status and masculinity as males' masculinity orientation. The chapter then considers the dominant idea in public discourse about fatherhood and masculinity, the essential father (EF) hypothesis, which holds that fathers make an essential, unique, and more specifically, uniquely male contribution to child development. The EF view entails six component ideas: gender differences in parenting, associations between father presence and child outcomes, the mediation of those associations specifically by paternal involvement, the attribution of paternal presence effects to father's maleness, the uniqueness of fathering's effects on child outcomes, and the association of paternal masculinity orientation to paternal involvement and child outcomes. A review of research in each of these six areas reveals modest support at best. I then suggest an alternative interpretation, the "important father" hypothesis. This view holds that good fathering is one of many factors promoting good child outcomes, having positive consequences independent of other influences such as good mothering, and having these consequences in ways not necessarily linked to fathers' masculinity.
Publications
- Pleck, J.H. 2010. Paternal involvement: Revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages with child outcomes. In: M.E. Lamb, Ed., The role of the father in child development, 5th ed., pp. 67-107. New York: Wiley.
- Pleck, J.H. 2010. Fatherhood and masculinity. In: M.E. Lamb, Ed., The role of the father in child development, 5th ed., pp. 32-66) New York: Wiley.
- Lamb, M.E., Pleck, J.H., Charnov, E.L. and Levine, J.A. 2010. A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In: J.B. Lancaster, J. Altman, A. Rossi and L. Sherrod, Eds., Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions. 2nd ed., pp. 111-142. New York: Academic Press.
- Dariotis, J.K., Pleck, J.H., Astone, N.M. and Sonenstein, F.L. 2010. Pathways of early fatherhood, marriage, and employment: A latent class growth analysis. Demography. (In Press).
- Pleck, J.H. 2010. Do children benefit from fathering, and if so, how National Council on Family Relations. Minneapolis (November, 2010).
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Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09
Outputs
OUTPUTS: During this period, the project generated one output in the form of a publication, and four outputs in the form of presentations at professional conferences. PARTICIPANTS: Principal Investigator: Joseph H. Pleck, Ph.D. (other staff on this project were not supported by the agency). Partner organizations: Johns Hopkins University, University of Maryland, Cornell University, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audience for the project research outputs are other researchers as well as developers of educational and intervention programs and policy makers. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.
Impacts
An empirical article from earlier work under the project, concerning the effect of the transition to fatherhood on men's work hours, appeared in published form. New analyses were undertaken using the NLSY 1979 dataset concerning the varying patterns of marital status and employment status associated with fatherhood occurring either (1) early, (2) on-time, or (3) late. It was expected that among men becoming fathers for the first time at a given age, there would be heterogeneous patterns of marital and employment status. It was further expected that these varying patterns would be differentially associated with socioeconomic background characteristics, and with later life circumstances (earnings, educational attainment, marital status, and incarceration). With data on fatherhood status, marital status, and employment status at 10 observations between age 18 and 37, we used a newly-developed advanced statistical method, Latent Class Growth Analysis (LCGA), to empirically derive the varying patterns of the acquisition of these roles over the life course, marriage and full-time employment, taking into account their sequencing and timing. Fifteen latent classes were derived. The first paper concerned the latent classes with median ages of first fatherhood below the cohort median (26.4), comprising 32.4 percent of NLSY men. These five latent classes can be interpreted as distinct early fatherhood pathways (EFPs): (A) the Married Fully-Employed Young Father pathway, (B) the Married Fully-Employed Teen Father pathway, (C) the Married Partially-Employed Teen/Young Father pathway, (D) the Unmarried Partially-Employed Teen/Young Father pathway, and (E) the Initially Unmarried Fully-Employed Young Father pathway. A sixth latent class of men who become fathers around the cohort median, following full-time employment and marriage, is the comparison group. With sociodemographic background controlled, all early fatherhood pathways show disadvantage in at least some later life circumstances (earnings, educational attainment, marital status, and incarceration). The extent of disadvantage is greater when early fatherhood occurs at relatively younger ages (before age 20), occurs outside marriage, or occurs outside full-time employment. The relative disadvantage associated with early fatherhood, unlike early motherhood, increases over the life course. Work was begun on a second paper analyzing the five latent classes of men who became fathers for the first time at an age older than the cohort median, termed fatherhood postponers.
Publications
- Astone, N., Dariotis, J., Sonenstein, F., Pleck, J.H. and Hynes, K. 2009. Men's work effort and the transition to fatherhood. Journal of Family and Economic Issues. Published online: DOI 10.1007/s10834-009-9174-7.
- Dariotis, J., Astone, N., Pleck, J.H. and Sonenstein, F. 2009. The demography of marriage, work, and fatherhood. Population Studies Center, University of Maryland at College Park.
- Dariotis, J., Pleck, J.H., Astone, N. and Sonenstein, F. 2009. Pathways of early fatherhood, marriage, and employment: A latent class growth analysis. Population Association of America, Detroit.
- Pleck, J.H. 2009. Fathering today: What we know and don't know. Keynote address at Illinois Council on Family Relations, Normal, IL.
- Dariotis, J., Pleck, J.H., Astone, N. Sonenstein, F.L. 2009. Heterogeneity of men who postpone fatherhood: Latent class growth analysis. National Council on Family Relations, San Francisco.
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Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08
Outputs
OUTPUTS: During this period, the project generated three outputs in the form of publications, and two outputs in the form of presentations at professional conferences. PARTICIPANTS: Principal Investigator: Joseph H. Pleck, Ph.D. (Other staff on this project were not supported by the agency). Partner organizations: Johns Hopkins University, University of Maryland, Cornell University, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audience for the project research outputs are other researchers as well as developers of educational and intervention programs, and also policy makers. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
An empirical article from earlier work under the project, concerning mother involvement as an influence on father involvement with early adolescents, appeared in published form. An analytical literature review conducted under the project was undertaken concerning theoretical perspectives about why father involvement could have positive consequences for child development. Four perspectives were reviewed: attachment theory, human capital and social capital theory, Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory, and essential father theory. Strengths and weaknesses of each perspective were analyzed, and the prospects for an integrated ecological-parental capital theory of paternal influence on child development were put forward. A second analytical review focused on challenges in studying immigrant fathering in the United States. Issues discussed concerned: 1. sampling and recruitment, 2. research design and analysis, and 3. fathering constructs and dynamics. Some of the research challenges discussed were unique to investigations of immigrant fathers while others arise in fatherhood research more generally. The sampling and recruitment issues considered included defining exactly who immigrant fathers are and recruiting them. The challenges in research design and analysis discussed were: employing fathers, mothers, or both as informants about fathering; using comparative data about mothering; analyzing the pros and cons of immigrant-only and immigrant/non-immigrant designs; analyzing the pros and cons of national survey datasets for studying immigrant fathering; and addressing the interrelationships among immigrant status, race-ethnicity, and SES. Particular attention was given to the fathering constructs and dynamics investigated in research on immigrant fathers, including: assessing the applicability of existing constructs in fathering research, especially father involvement, to immigrant fathers; developing new fathering constructs based on the experience of immigrant fathers; and assessing the relevance of fathering dynamics studied in existing fathering research to immigrant fathers, and exploring additional dynamics. Each of these challenges provides new directions and opportunities for immigrant father research. These publications are influencing current research on fatherhood and fathering.
Publications
- Pleck, J.H. 2008. Studying immigrant fathers: Methodological and conceptual challenges. In: S. Chuang and R. Moreno (Eds.), On New Shores: Understanding Immigrant Fathers in North America (pp. 255-285). Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
- Pleck, J.H., and Hofferth, S. 2008. Mother involvement as an influence on father involvement with early adolescents. Fathering: A Journal of Research, Theory, and Practice About Men as Fathers 6: 267-286.
- Pleck, J.H. 2008. Why does father involvement promote child and adolescent development Addressing an under-theorized issue. Father Involvement Research 2008 Conference, University of Guelph, Ontario.
- Pleck, J.H., Hofferth, S.H., Veseley, C. and Cabrera, N. 2008. The transmission of fathering from fathers and mothers to sons. Father Involvement Research 2008 Conference, University of Guelph, Ontario.
- Pleck, J.H. 2007. Why could father involvement benefit children Theoretical perspectives. Applied Developmental Science, 11-(4): 1-7.
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Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07
Outputs
OUTPUTS: During this period, the project generated three outputs in the form of presentations at professional conferences. These presentations are being prepared for publication. In addition, they are or will be available on the website of the NICHD Transition to Fatherhood Research Network (http://fatherhood.library.cornell.edu/ttf/). Another project output is the questionnaire developed for the National Survey of Adult Males, Wave 4. This survey instrument will be administered early next year to a national representative sample of U.S. males aged 32-36 who participated in my earlier surveys. The data to be collected with this instrument will be used for project analyses. In addition, the data collected will be archived as a public-use dataset, and will be utilized by other researchers.
PARTICIPANTS: Principal Investigator: Joseph H. Pleck, Ph.D. (Other staff on this project were not supported by the agency). Partner Organizations: Johns Hopkins University, University of Maryland, Cornell University, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audience for the project research outputs are other researchers as well as developers of educational and intervention programs and policy makers. The target audience for the National Survey of Adult Males includes other researchers who will utilize the public-use dataset as well as other researchers designing data collections regarding fatherhood and fathering.
Impacts
Continuing my work with other researchers in the NICHD Transition to Fatherhood Research Network, two lines of data analysis were conducted with the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979 (NLSY 79). One line of analysis addressed the association between family circumstances, relationship between parents, and adolescent-reported involvement of residential and nonresidential biological fathers and mothers. It uses as its sample 2,161 adolescent children of young women from the NLSY 79. Although children living with residential fathers report greater father involvement than children whose fathers are nonresidential, this relationship disappears when the relationship quality of the two biological parents is controlled. Children who live farther from their father, who spent fewer years living with him, whose mother works more hours, whose household income is lower, and whose parents were not married at birth report a less-involved nonresidential father. Parental
relationship quality is key to adolescent relationships with mothers and fathers. The second line of analysis concerned how fathering and mothering behavior directly influence the parenting behavior of their own sons and what the indirect paths of influence are. Data come from the Child-Mother and Young Adult study of the NLSY 79, through 2006. The results show that parenting has direct effects over a period of 20-30 years. Father involvement when sons are young is associated with warmer and more positive parenting by young men some 25 years later. Maternal behavior also has long-term effects. Young men read to by their mothers are less likely to spank their children, again, some 25 years later. There was an indirect effect of positive mothering that, by improving children's attitudes when 10-14, reduced their spanking of their own children as young adults. Project resources were used to conduct these data analyses and prepare presentations as project outputs.
Publications
- Astone, N.M., Dariotis, J., Sonenstein, F. and Pleck, J.H. 2007. Men's differing work trajectories and fatherhood. Presented at the Population Association of America, New York.
- Hofferth, S., Cabrera, N., Forry, N. and Pleck, J.H. 2007. Parental relationship and resident and nonresident biological father involvement with early adolescent children. Presented to the NICHD Transition to Fatherhood Research Network, Washington.
- Hofferth, S.H., Veseley, C., Cabrera, N., Goldscheider, F., LaTaillade, J. and Pleck, J.H. 2007. The transmission of parenting from fathers and mothers to sons. Presented to the NICHD Transition to Fatherhood Research Network, Washington.
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Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06
Outputs
Taking advantage of opportunities for collaboration with other researchers in the NICHD Transition to Fatherhood Research Network, two lines of data analysis were conducted with the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1997 (NLSY 97). The first focused on predictors of father involvement with early adolescents, a period in development which has been relatively neglected in fathering research. An innovative feature of the analysis is its use of a structural equation model that takes into account that paternal and maternal involvement may be correlated with each other, as well as share some predictors in common; by taking these processes into account, the influences on each parent's involvement can be better estimated. Mother and father involvement each formed separate factors; only one factor was confirmed for each. The errors in the equivalent variables across mothers and fathers were correlated and, in addition, mother and father factors were correlated. The
results of the structural equation model show that high conflict between partners reduces the involvement of both mothers and fathers with their early adolescent child. In stepfamilies fathers are less involved, but mothers involvement is not affected. Greater maternal work hours reduce maternal involvement but do not affect that of fathers. After controlling for all variables, race/ethnicity has no influence on parent involvement and minimal influence on mediators. Maternal depression reduces the involvement of both parents with their child. The findings show that mother and father involvement are influenced by some similar (conflict, depression) and some different personal and structural factors (work hours, dad's biological relationship to child) and that their involvement with their early adolescent child is highly correlated. The focus of the second line of analysis was the association between the transition to fatherhood and men's work effort. Four hypotheses were tested: 1)
that there is a positive association between the transition to fatherhood and hours worked; 2) that this association is stronger for men who are married when they become fathers; 3) that this association declines with time since the transition to fatherhood; and 4) that this association is stronger for men who are relatively young when they become fathers. We find that the transition to fatherhood is associated with an increase in work effort. This positive association is stronger for older men who are married at fatherhood, but among younger men there is no difference by marital status. The association does decline with time since the transition to fatherhood, but only among younger men. The association is stronger for men who make the transition to fatherhood at younger ages. In addition to these empirical analyses, work on the development of fatherhood theory continued, with a particular focus on immigrant fathers. Also, progress was made in developing the interview instrument for
the fourth wave of the National Survey of Adolescent Males, to be conducted in 2007 when respondents are age 32-37; a major focus of the survey is predictors and correlates of men's fathering experience in varying contexts.
Impacts
The effective parenting of our children is essential to the future well-being of U.S. society. Fathers are increasingly recognized as making a critical contribution to parenting. Project findings concern factors associated with mothers and fathers parenting can contribute to parenting education programs and to social policy concerning families.
Publications
- Hofferth, S.L., Pleck, J.H., Day, R.L. and Cabrera, N. 2006. Family processes, intergenerational learning, and involved fathering. Presented to the NICHD Transition to Fatherhood Research Network, Washington.
- Pleck, J.H. 2006. Assessing fathering in diverse groups: Challenges and opportunities. Pres. at the Immigrant Fathers Conference, Syracuse Univ.
- Astone, N,M., Dariotis, J., Sonenstein, F. and Pleck, J.H. 2006. Fatherhood, union status and mens work lives. Pres. at the Population Association of America, Los Angeles.
- Hofferth, S.L. and Pleck, J.H. 2006. How early adolescent children perceive coresidential father and mother involvement? Pres. at the NICHD Transition to Fatherhood Research Network, Washington.
- Hofferth, S.L. and Pleck, J.H. 2006. Coresidential father involvement with early adolescent children. Presented at New Data on Fathers: Recent Trends in Fatherhood and Father Involvement, Cornell University.
- Astone, N.M., Dariotis, J., Sonenstein, F. and Pleck, J.H. 2006. How do men's work lives change after fatherhood? Presented at New Data on Fathers: Recent Trends in Fatherhood and Father Involvement, Cornell University.
- Dyer, W.J., Pleck, J.H. and McBride, B.B. 2006. Factors of paternal identity verification in prison: What matters most. Pres. at the National Council on Family Relations, Minneapolis.
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Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05
Outputs
One direction of current work is analysis of the barriers and challenges in engaging fathers in parenting education programs, especially those conducted by social service agencies. In designing such programs, needs assessment should first be conducted to determine what fathers themselves, and their children's mothers, think fathers need. Provider's own potential negative attitudes about fathers need to be addressed. Fathers jobs often make it difficulty to schedule programs at times fathers can attend. A final challenge to engaging fathers in programs is that fathers conception of their role as parents is often limited. The second direction of current work is evaluation of issues entailed in current efforts to formulate new theory about fatherhood. It is important to be clear about the scope of the theory, e.g., whether it is about fathering vs. parenting; the sources of fathering vs. the effects of fathering on child development vs. more narrowly about the effects of
paternal involvement with the children; and whether theory focuses only on resident fathers or includes nonresident fathers as well. Paternal residence vs non-residence presents special issues in conceptualization and analysis in that it is simultaneously a context for fathering as well as an aspect of the father-mother relationship, and therefore a family process variable directly influencing fathering. The concept of generativity as well as concepts used in recent work on coparenting can contribute to new theory about fatherhood.
Impacts
Parent education programs for fathers can make use of project findings about barriers and challenges to engaging fathers. Project work also contributes to future theory-building about fatherhood.
Publications
- Maurer, T.W. and Pleck, J.H. 2005. Parental caregiving behaviors: Multiple predictors of fathers and mothers involvement. Psych. Men. and Masc. (In Press).
- Pleck, J.H. and Masciadrelli, B. 2005. Engaging fathers. Pres. to Univ. Ill. Extension.
- Masciadrelli, B., Milardo, R. and Pleck, J.H. 2005. Exploring the relationship between academic stress and father involvement in a sample of university student fathers. Pres. at Soc. Res. Child Devel.
- Pleck, J.H. 2005. Fatherhood: Theory and assessment. Pres. at Early Head Start Res. Consort.
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