Progress 10/01/03 to 09/30/08
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Disaccharides are able to protect proteins during purification. We investigated the effect of trehalose versus lactose with protectants for vitamin D during spray drying of vitamin D- beta-lactoglobulin complexes. There was no difference in protective capacity of trehalose versus lactose with vitamin D; both can reduce the vitamin D degradation during spray drying. Another study investigated effects of storage temperature and time on components in freshly expressed, human breast milk. Samples were stored either at -20C, 4C, or 24C for three weeks. Samples stored at -20C only showed a significant increase in non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA). Samples stored at 4C showed a significant increase in NEFA, free amino ends, and bacterial growth. Samples stored at 24C showed a significant increase in NEFA , free amino ends, bacterial growth, and a decrease in total protein concentration. All samples showed a rapid increase in NEFA. Total fat, lysozyme, and SIgA remained stable throughout the storage conditions. Another study investigated the glycemic index of raw and thermally processed sweet potatoes, including glycemic response of white potato vs. white potato plus Caiapo, an antidiabetic acidic glycoprotein component in a Japanese sweet potato cultivar. Glucose levels were measured at 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 minutes post prandially. Comparison of C-peptide, serum insulin, and glucose response suggested that the mechanism for the hypoglycemic effect in sweet potato or Caiapo is not due to improved insulin production, response to blood glucose, or increased insulin uptake by target cells, but that the blood glucose lowering effects appear to occur in the small intestine (duodenum) by retarding absorption of glucose to the bloodstream. We investigated the thermo-stability of the low glycemic index effect in sweet potato by measuring the glycemic index after baking, steaming, dehydration, and microwaving. Participants consumed 25 g of available carbohydrate, determined through AOAC proximate analysis. Steamed skin, baked skin, and dehydrated flesh did not have statistically different glycemic indices (p> 0.05) from those of raw sweet potatoes (n=12). Dehydrated sweet potato flesh retained the low glycemic index of raw sweet potatoes. The glycemic index of steamed, baked and microwaved flesh increased to that of a medium glycemic index food. Another study was to determine the most efficient method for extracting protein from sweet potato, using varying buffer compositions and to determine the effect of digestive conditions on sweet potato protein. Sweet potato protein was subjected to pepsin digestion under acidic condition and then run on a gel next to protein not digested. Proteins resistant to pepsin digestion were found in Beauregard sweet potato flesh, peel, and leaf. Protein extracted from the flesh exhibited higher amylase than protein extracted from the peel. Digestion with pepsin eliminated amylase activity in the flesh and peel extracts. No amylase activity was found in the leaf extract or the leaf extract treated with pepsin. Amylase inhibitors were not apparent in any of the fractions. PARTICIPANTS: Dairy Management Incorporated, North Carolina Sweet Potato Commission, Tetra Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural Foundation TARGET AUDIENCES: Not relevant to this project. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.
Impacts
For several years, our lab group has been working on purification of beta-lactoglobulin from acid whey, binding of this protein to fat-soluble vitamins, scaling up of this process, and stability and bioavailability of beta-lactoglobulin-complex with vitamin A and D. We are now at the point to work with a commercial partner to produce this product that could increase the water solubility and bioavailability of vitamin D, a nutrient for which more than half of the population has les than optimum intake. Results from the breast milk study indicate that breast milk may be stored longer than suggested by the current recommendations. The study produced data that can be used to rewrite guidelines on storage and reuse of human milk in hospital and day care settings. We are continuing research that may lead to improved foods for diabetics to assist in blood glucose management. This food additive or ingredient may come from underutilized parts of the sweet potato or the waste stream of sweet potato processing plants.
Publications
- Allen J. C. and R. Watkins. 2007. In vitro digestibility of polyol hydrogenated starch hydrolysates. International Journal of Food Science Technology and Nutrition. 1(2): 199-212.
- Asghar, A.,, F. M Anjum, J. C. Allen and C. R. Daubert. 2009. Effect of modified whey protein concentrates on empirical and fundamental dynamic mechanical properties of frozen dough. Food Hydrocolloids. (In press.)
- Patterson, K. W., Allen, J.C., Truong, V.D 2008, Amylase inhibition as a potential mechanism for the low glycemic response to sweet potato. 08-A-2611-IFT. Technical Research Papers. 2008.
- Asghar, A., Anjum, F. A., Muhammad, F., Allen, J.C., Daubert, C.R., and Ramsey, S. R. 2008. Effect of modified whey protein concentrates on instrumental texture analysis of frozen dough. IFT. Technical Research Papers.
- Dixon, E. M. 2008. Whey Permeate, Delactosed Permeate, and Delactosed Whey as Ingredients to Lower Sodium Content of Cream Based Soups. M.S. Thesis. North Carolina State University.
- Fogleman A., 2008. The Effect of Storage Time and Temperature on Nutritional Components in Human Breast Milk. M.S. Thesis. North Carolina State University.
- K. Patterson, 2008. Effect of Pepsin Hydrolysis on Amylase Activity and Lack of Amylase Inhibitory Activity of Sweet Potato Protein. M.S. Thesis. North Carolina State University.
- Asghar, Ali. 2008. Effect of dairy protein ingredients on frozen bread dough. Ph.D Dissertation. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. (Under the direction of F. Anjum and J. C. Allen)
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Progress 10/01/06 to 09/30/07
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Short term glycemic effect of raw Beauregard sweet potato in normal human subjects compared with white potato and Caiapo, an antidiabetic acidic glycoprotein from sweet potato. Comparison of c-peptide, serum insulin, and glucose response showed that the hypoglycemic effect is not due to improved insulin production in response to blood glucose or increased insulin uptake by target cells, but happens in the small intestine by retarding absorption of glucose. Sweet potato proteins were extracted and showed evidence of amylase activity and endogenous inhibitory activity toward the sweet potato and pancreatic amylases. Thermo-stability of the low glycemic index effect of sweet potato was measured after baking, steaming, dehydration, and microwaving. Steamed skin, baked skin, and dehydrated flesh did not have statistically different glycemic indices from raw sweet potatoes. Dehydrated sweet potato flesh retained the low glycemic index of raw sweet potatoes. Glycemic index of
steamed, baked and microwaved flesh was greater than raw, and were characterized as medium glycemic index foods. Bone health is a growing concern as the numbers of individuals affected by osteoporosis increases. Adequate amounts of calcium and vitamin D have been linked to a reduction in fractures, prevention of osteoporosis, and increased bone mass. The CaCl2-vitamin D interaction in an aqueous sports drink and its effects on bone was measured in Wistar rats. Vitamin D was from a protein complex to increase aqueous solubility. Rats were given the sports drink formulations and a low calcium, low vitamin D diet for six weeks. The sports drink solution increased serum vitamin D content. No effect on bone and serum Ca occurred because vitamin D was adequate to compensate for low intakes. Regular consumption of a flavored sports drink fortified with calcium and vitamin D significantly increased dietary calcium and vitamin D. Dried whey permeate and milk salts have a salty taste and may be
useful as a salt substitute in soups that are made with dairy ingredients. This substitution could lower the sodium content of soups, allow them to use the term "healthy" on the label, and help consumers meet Dietary Guideline recommendations for sodium. Samples of delactosed whey permeate were received from 6 companies. Centrifugation resulted in a clear supernatant layer. A portion if the material was ultra-filtered with a 10,000 Dalton cutoff to produce a clear liquid. Protein, lactose and mineral content were measured. A sensory panel evaluated all the liquid and resuspended powdered (10% w/v) samples for a range of aroma and flavor attributes. After a training session, the panel quantified various aromas and flavors and the tastes sweet, sour, salty, and umami in pasteurized samples. The salty flavor had the highest score in 3 of the 5 samples. We started to reformulate a soup recipe and make sample batches with lower sodium content by substituting whey permeate for salt. We will
continue this work by making condensed retorted canned soups, measuring sodium content, and testing consumer acceptance.
PARTICIPANTS: Jonathan C. Allen, P.I.; Dairy Management Inc., Partner Organization; North Carolina Sweet Potato Commission, Partner Organization; Van Den Truong, USDA_ARS, collaborator; graduate student trainees - M. Lovett, T. B. Peters, A. Corbitt, E. Dixon, A. Piercy, K. Manavi, K. Patterson, A. Asghar
TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audiences include food and beverage manufacturers, food ingredient suppliers, and consumers. Results of this research are disseminated in classroom teaching in courses of the NCSU nutrition program, by oral and poster presentations at regional and national meetings, and by publications.
PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: The original scope of the project was to investigate fortification of foods and beverages with vitamins and minerals. We have taken the opportunity to expand this scope to also investigate bioactive proteins and carbohydrates that have potential as food fortifiers.
Impacts
This project is aimed at improved fortification or ingredient modification that can improve the nutritional quality of foods and beverages. Products that may be derived from current research may reduce consumers' risk for complications of diabetes, osteoporosis, and hypertension. Development of a water-soluble form of vitamin D has led to calcium and vitamin D fortification of flavored water and sports drinks with the potential to reduce the risk for osteoporosis and related chronic diseases. Investigation of ingredients in sweet potato confirms the recognized low glycemic index of sweet potato and demonstrates that the glycemic index for sweet potato is somewhat heat-stable. A dairy-based ingredient is being used as a salt substitute in soup to reduce the sodium intake of consumers and lower the risk of hypertension.
Publications
- Viazis, S., B. E. Farkas*, and J. C. Allen. 2007. Effects of High Pressure Processing on Total Immunoglobulin A and Lysozyme Activity in Human Milk. J. Human Lactation. 23(3): 253-261.
- Sauls, D. L., C. W. Bell, E. K. Arnold, J. C. Allen, M. Hoffman. 2007. Pro-Thrombotic and Pro-Oxidant Effects of Diet-Induced Hyperhomocysteinemia. Thrombosis Research. 120: 117-126.
- Banini, A E., Boyd, L. C., Allen J. C., Allen, H. G., Sauls, D. L. and Hoffman, M. 2006. Muscadine grape products intake, diet and blood constituents of non-diabetic and type II diabetic subjects. Nutrition. 22 (11-12) 1137-1145.
- Allen, J. C., Zakir S., Butt, M.S. 2007. Glycemic response to whole sweet potato and sweet potato components in diabetic and non-diabetic Pakistani subjects. Experimental Biology FASEB J. 2007 21:847.24
- Peters, T. B., Allen, J. C. Truong V. D. 2007. Amylase activity and inhibition from Ipomoea batatas (Caiapo) protein. Experimental Biology FASEB J. 2007 21:550.23
- Corbitt, A. D., J. C Allen, V. D. Truong. 2007. Glycemic response to heated and raw sweet potato. IFT Annual Meeting: Book of Abstracts. 07-A-2929-IFT
- Matsey, G. J., Jonathan C Allen. 2007. Under-reporting dietary intake to an Internet nutrition education web site. IFT Annual Meeting: Book of Abstracts. 07-A-2676-IFT
- Asghar, A., F. M. Anjum, J. C. Allen, C. R. Daubert, S. R. Ramsey. 2007. Effect of whey protein concentrates as functional ingredients on physical and thermal dynamic rheological properties of wheat flour dough. IFT Annual Meeting: Book of Abstracts. 183-03
- McClelland J.W., J. C. Allen, S. Zakir. 2007. Bio-medicinal effect of sweet potato in people with diabetes. Annual Meeting of American Dietetics Association. Food and Nutrition Conference & Expo. Philadelphia, 9/29-10/2/2007.
- Peters, T. B. 2007. Isolation of Ipomoea batatas Protein and Characterization of Amylase Inhibitory Activity. M.S. Thesis, North Carolina State University.
- Corbitt, A. D. 2007. Characterization of the glycemic index elicited by Beauregard sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas) M.S. Thesis, North Carolina State University.
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Progress 10/01/05 to 09/30/06
Outputs
The first objective was to test effects of a water-soluble form of vitamin D and calcium chloride as fortifiers for an aqueous sports drink solution with a rat bioavailability assay. A water-soluble vitamin D fortifying ingredient was prepared as a spray-dried complex with bovine beta-lactoglobulin. Vitamin D content of the complex was measured by HPLC. Flavored beverages were formulated with various ratios of calcium and vitamin D in a 4x4 factorial design. Wistar female rats were housed under incandescent lighting and randomly divided into the treatment and control groups. After a 4-week depletion phase, rats were given specialized sports drink formulations and low calcium, vitamin D-deficient diet for an additional six weeks. Blood and femur bones were removed for further analysis. Serum vitamin D was measured by ELISA. Aqueous sports drink solutions could be accurately formulated to contain calcium chloride at 0, 1, 2 and 2.5 g Ca/L with palatability to rats. The
vitamin D content of the drinks was formulated to be 0, 10, 20, and 40 mcg/L. Serum vitamin D analysis demonstrated increased serum vitamin D content in treatment groups that had higher vitamin D added to their drinking solution. The serum calcium was not significantly different among the treatment groups. The group that received no vitamin D had serum vitamin D significantly lower (p<.0001) than groups receiving calcium. Level of dietary calcium and vitamin D did not significantly affect bone mass. Objectives of a second study were to investigate blood glucose-lowering effects of sweet potato (SP). Caiapo, an extract of SP modifies the glycemic index of foods. The predominant 22,000 kDa protein of Caiapo stained for glycoprotein, as did the analogous band in the skin, but not the flesh of 3 N.C. SP cultivars. Glucose, insulin and C-peptide were analyzed in blood collected from subjects at 0, 60, and 120 minutes after consumption of 50 g of carbohydrate from various sources. The
glycemic response was: glucose > flesh > whole > skin of Beauregard SP. A single serving of Caiapo protein lowered the glycemic response to white potato. Changes in blood C-peptide in response to each sample were similar to the changes in glucose and insulin, suggesting that the hypoglycemic mechanism is not increased glucose uptake by target cells, or improved insulin binding to receptors, as previously proposed. The variable C-peptide levels after consumption of SP follows the change in glucose, suggesting lower glucose uptake could result from reduced breakdown of SP starch into glucose. Thus we tested amylase inhibitory effects of SP protein fractions. Native SP amylases that were found in both insoluble and soluble protein fractions were reduced by heat treatment (97+/-2 and 69+/-5% respectively) but no heat-stable amylase inhibition remained. Our data show native amylase activity to be greater than the amylase inhibitor activity we expected to find. Thus, amylase inhibition may
not be the cause of the hypoglycemic effect, and further research is needed before food fortification should be proposed.
Impacts
Flavored water and sports drinks seem to be appropriate vehicles for calcium fortification to increase calcium intake in populations that have decreased milk intake in recent years. Development of a water-soluble form of vitamin D for this type of product has been achieved in this project. Improving these beverages through calcium and vitamin D fortification has the potential to reduce the risk for osteoporosis and related chronic diseases for consumers. Investigation of ingredients in sweet potato confirms the recognized low glycemic index of sweet potato and demonstrates that the glycemic index for sweet potato is lower that of white potato. With further research in this area, it may be possible to recommend that people with diabetes or insulin resistance consume sweet potato or use extracts of North Carolina sweet potato to help control blood glucose.
Publications
- Allen, H. G., Allen, J. C., Boyd, L.C., Alston-Mills, B.P., Fenner, G.P. Determination of membrane lipid differences on insulin resistant diabetes mellitus type II in whites and blacks. Nutrition 22: 1096-1102. 2006.
- S. Zakir, M. Sarwar, J. Allen, M.S. Butt and J.McClelland. Impact of sweet potatoes cultivars on postprandial blood glucose level in normal and diabetics subjects: Empirical test of hypotheses on Pakistani data. Eur. J. Scientific Res. 11(2):171-184. 2005.
- D. L. Sauls, C. W. Bell, E. K. Arnold, J. C. Allen, M. Hoffman. Pro-Thrombotic and Pro-Oxidant Effects of Diet-Induced Hyperhomocysteinemia. Thrombosis Research. In Press. 2007,
- Allen J. C., Eledah-Omishakin, J.I., Drake, M.A., and Mishra, S. Calcium bioavailability and sensory threshold of calcium chloride fortified water. Baltimore, MD: International Symposium on Health Aspects of Calcium and Magnesium in Drinking Water, Programs and Abstracts. p. 95-6. April 24-26, 2006.
- J. C. ALLEN, D. Clare, V. Truong, M. Butt. Components of North Carolina sweet potato cultivars that lower blood glucose. IFT Annual Meeting: Book of Abstracts. 2006 Presentation Number: 018B-03
- M. LOVETT, J. Allen, R. Watkins, E. Dixon. Calcium chloride and vitamin D fortified beverages: Bioavailability in Wistar rats. IFT Annual Meeting: Book of Abstracts. 2006. Presentation Number: 020H-04
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Progress 10/01/04 to 09/30/05
Outputs
Beta-Lactoglobulin (BLG) is a lipocalin-type whey protein of ruminant species that is able to bind a variety of hydrophobic ligands. BLG complexes with vitamin A and vitamin D were produced through spray drying. Complexes were formed by mixing retinyl-palmitate and cholecalciferol with a BLG solution. Binding was confirmed by quenching of the protein fluorescence. During the drying process, heat can cause dissociation of the complex with low retention of vitamins. Additional ingredients and carriers were tested to improve the efficiency of recovery of the vitamin. A GRAS carbohydrate food ingredient that reduces protein denaturation was added to the BLG aqueous solution after its binding with vitamins. The mixture was then pumped into the spray dryer and powder was collected. The content of vitamins in the powder was determined using HPLC analysis and compared to a vitamin- BLG complex spray-dried without the extra ingredient. The results showed that in the presence
of the protecting compound, the spray-dried powder had 8-10 times more retention of vitamin A than without this ingredient and that the content of vitamin D in the powder was also significantly greater. Spray-dried BLG -vitamin A complex was used to fortify a commercial lemon-lime beverage and study the stability of the vitamin A in the complex under different lighting. The result demonstrated that even though the BLG could solublize the vitamin A, both light and the acidity of the beverage contributed to rapid vitamin A degradation. Spray-dried vitamin D-BLG powder was tested for bioavailability in rats with a 4 x 4 factorial complete block design. Rats were maintained on low-calcium, low vitamin-D diets for the duration of the study, except for positive control groups fed normal AIN-93G purified diet after 7 wks of age. The rats were sacrificed after 7 weeks on drinking water treatments of 4 levels of CaCl2 and 4 levels of vitamin D. Blood and bone were collected and stored for
later analysis. Results show that aqueous sports drink solutions could be accurately formulated to contain calcium chloride at 0, 1, 2 and 2.5 g Ca/L with palatability to rats. The vitamin D content of the drinks was formulated to be 0, 10, 20, and 40 mcg/L, but improved efficiency of the spray drying method resulted in much higher levels. Serum vitamin D analysis demonstrated increased vitamin D content in treatment groups that had higher vitamin D content in their drinking solution. Drink consumption decreased at high (3 g Ca/L) CaCl2 content. Bone parameters (mass, length, thickness, and Ca content) were not significantly affected by the level of calcium and vitamin D intake from drinking water. The drinks formulated with CaCl2 and water-soluble vitamin D-BLG complex significantly increased intake of calcium and vitamin D in the rats. This method holds promise for achieving a commercially available product to fortify fat-free milk, water based beverages such as sports drinks.
Impacts
Flavored water and sports drinks seem to be appropriate vehicles for calcium fortification to increase calcium intake in populations that have decreased milk intake in recent years. Development of a water-soluble form of vitamin D for this type of product has been achieved in this project. Improving these beverages through calcium and vitamin D fortification has the potential to reduce the risk for osteoporosis and related chronic diseases for consumers.
Publications
- REYNOLDS, RONG. 2005, Spray Drying of beta-Lactoglobulin-Vitamin A and beta-Lactoglobulin-Vitamin D Complexes. (Under the direction of Jonathan C. Allen) MS Thesis. North Carolina State University.
- REYNOLDS, R, and J. C. Allen 2005, Spray-drying of beta-lactoglobulin-vitamin A and vitamin D complexes http://ift.confex.com/ift/2005/techprogram/ataglance.htm Abstract 107-1.
- Dixon, E. M., and J.C. Allen. 2005. The exploration of calciumchloride and vitamin D in an aqueous sports drink solution. State of North Carolina Undergraduate Research Symposium, Raleigh, 12 Nov 2005. Book of Abstracts. p.41.
- Zakir, S., Sarwar, M., Allen, J., Butt, M.S., Allen, H. 2005. Effect of sweet potato on insulin efficiency of normal and diabetics subjects in Pakistan. Eur. J. Scientific Res. 10 (1): 87-97.
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Progress 10/01/03 to 09/30/04
Outputs
The calcium in bottled water is usually less than 2% of the Daily Value. However, mineral water and fortified water could have Ca contents high enough to show on a Nutrition Facts label. Objectives were to determine the sensory threshold of calcium chloride in water and flavored water, and design an acceptable Ca-fortified beverage and also, determine the bioavailability of Ca from CaCl2-fortified drinking water in vitamin D-deficient rats. Mineral content was determined for nine commercial bottled and flavored waters by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Sensory detection thresholds of CaCl2 were determined in deionized water (DI), tap water, berry flavored water, and a sports beverage formulation using a five series ascending forced choice analysis. Ascending CaCl2 concentrations in the fortified drinks were evaluated by 30 panelists in duplicate trials. Ninety-eight consumers evaluated acceptability of de-ionized and flavored water with and without added CaCl2.
Vitamin D-deficient diets of rats had either low (0.2%) or normal (0.5%) calcium content. After a 2-wk depletion phase, drinking water fortified with CaCl2 calculated to provide 0, 0.25, 0.5 or 1.0 times the usual Ca intake (estimated at 2.88 g/L) from diet was provided. Additional groups with water fortified at 2 x usual intake did not complete the study because of low feed and water intake. Some groups also had a water-soluble form of vitamin D added to the water. Calcium concentration of the nine commercial products measured varied from 0.3 mg/L to 116 mg/L. Sensory thresholds for CaCl2 in drinks were: flavored water (857 +/- 8.9 mg/L), sport drinks (844 +/- 9.8 mg/L), DI- water (101 +/- 3 mg/L), tap water (93.5 +/- 3mg/L). (On the basis of Ca, thresholds were flavored water (7.72 +/- 0.08 mM)> sport drinks (7.60 +/- 0.09 mM) > DI- water (0.91 +/- 0.01 mM) > tap water (0.91 +/- 0.01 mM).) Consumer acceptability scores were not different for water or flavored water with and without
added CaCl2 (70 mg/L and 700 mg/L, or 0.63 and 6.31 mM, respectively) (p>0.05). In the bioavailability study, final serum vitamin D level indicated that the vitamin D in water was poorly available to the rats. Results showed that groups fed low dietary calcium and not supplemented with calcium in water had lower bone weight, bone ash weight, and bone ash Ca percentage, than did rats supplemented with Ca in water. The deficient rats with no Ca and low vitamin D and those with highest Ca (2.88 g/L) in water all had lower final body weight than the control group (Ca and vitamin D in diet), and the groups with moderate water Ca (1.44 g/L). Body weight was correlated with food intake. For groups with 0.5% dietary Ca, bone weight, size, Ca, or breaking strength was not related to the Ca or vitamin D intake from water. Calcium content in flavored drinks or water can be increased with CaCl2 without impacting acceptability. Regular consumption of Ca-fortified water can significantly reduce the
effect of low dietary Ca intake on bone growth and mineralization. The fortification of water has little additional effect on bones when dietary calcium is adequate.
Impacts
Flavored water and sports drinks seem to be appropriate vehicles for calcium fortification to increase calcium intake in populations that have decreased milk intake in recent years. Addition of a water-soluble form of vitamin D to this type of product needs addditional research. Improving these beverages through calcium and vitamin D fortification has the potential to reduce the risk for osteoporosis and related chronic diseases for consumers.
Publications
- Sauls, D. L., M. B. Dallas, H.G. Allen, M. Hoffman, and J.C. Allen. 2004. Folate deficiency decreases insulin-recepor binding, prolongs fibrinolysis, and causes hyperhomocysteinemia in rabbits.. FASEB J. Abstract # 120.8 http://select.biosis.org/faseb/eb2004_data/FASEB007236.html.
- Liu, Y. and J. C. Allen. 2004. Vitamin-D-beta-lactoglobulin fortification of milk and bone mineralization. FASEB J. Abstract 347.7. http://select.biosis.org/faseb/eb2004_data/FASEB008091.html
- Banini, A. E., L.C. Boyd, J.C. Allen, H.G. Allen, D.L. Sauls. 2004. Efect of muscadine grape juice and wine on blood constituents of type II diabetics. FASEB J. Abstract 112.9. http://select.biosis.org/faseb/eb2004_data/FASEB008671.html
- Eledah J.I., Drake, M.A., and J. C. Allen. 2004 Increasing calcium intake through calcium chloride fortification of beverages. IFT Annual Meeting, Abstract 83G-3. http://ift.confex.com/ift/2004/techprogram/paper_22781.htm
- Allen, J. C. and H. Hickman. 2004. Comparison of performance in an advanced nutrition survey course offered by distance education over the Internet and face-to-face formats. IFT Annual Meeting, Abstract 67A-3. http://ift.confex.com/ift/2004/techprogram/paper_25099.htm
- Liu, Y., and J.C. Allen. 2004. Vitamin A and D stability in skim milk using a beta-lactoglobulin complex for fortification. IFT Annual Meeting, Abstract 64-1. http://ift.confex.com/ift/2004/techprogram/paper_22995.htm
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