Progress 12/01/02 to 09/30/07
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Experiments were conducted and analyzed in the context of graduate education. Results from this research were presented at the IFT Annual Meeting and at invited lectures in the food industry. Two Ph.D. students graduated in Food Science.
PARTICIPANTS: Devin G Peterson, Principal Investigator; Rajesh Potineni, Graduate Student; John Coupland, Co-Investigator (for emulsion work); and Supratim Ghosh, Graduate Student (co-advised with Dr. Coupland).
TARGET AUDIENCES: Food and Pharmaceutical Industry/Academia
Impacts
New mechanisms of flavor delivery in chewing gum and food emulisions were defined. In the first phase of this study (1) the influence of flavor solvent [triacetin (TA), propylene glycol (PG), medium chained triglycerides (MCT), or no flavor solvent (NFS)] on the flavor release profile, the textural properties and the sensory perception of a cinnamon flavored sugar-free chewing gum was investigated. Time course analysis of the exhaled breath and saliva during chewing gum mastication indicated that flavor solvent addition or type did not influence the aroma release profile, however, the sorbitol release rate (time to maximum intensity) was reported to be statistically lower for the TA formulated samples in comparison to those with PG, MCT or NFS. Sensory analysis also indicated that the TA formulated sample was statistically lower in perceived sweetness intensity, in comparison with the other chewing gum samples, and also had lower cinnamon-like aroma intensity
(presumably due to an interaction between sweetness intensity on aroma perception). The chewing gum macroscopic texture (based on compression test) during consumption was not correlated to the unique flavor release properties of the TA-chewing gum; however plasticity measurement of gum base samples formulated with TA, PG, MCT or NFS indicated the TA-gum based had the lowest plasticity index. The unique solvent properties (solubility) of TA was suggested to enhance the flowability/elasticity of the continuous polymeric phase in chewing gum to better retain the sugar alcohol during mastication and consequently altered the flavor properties of this sample. In the second phase of the study (2) the mechanisms of cinnamaldehyde release from a sugar-free chewing gum; p-cresol was also analyzed for comparison (similar log P value) was investigated. Breath analysis of the chewing gum samples over an 8min consumption period reported that the maximum concentration of cinnamaldehyde was 2 to
3-fold higher during the time period of 0-4min in comparison to between 6-8min (was similar to the sugar alcohol release profile monitored from the saliva), whereas the concentration of p-cresol was relatively constant over these two time periods. However, by contrast the release profile of cinnamaldehyde from a flavored gum base was constant over the 8 minute consumption period or was similar to that of cresol released from flavored gum base or chewing gum. Based on tandem mass spectrometry, cinnamaldehyde was reported to react with the sugar alcohol phase (sorbitol) and generate hemi-acetal reaction products which were not stable under slight alkaline conditions; were suggested to revert back to free cinnamaldehyde and sugar alcohol in the oral cavity. The increased polarity of these transient cinnamaldehyde-sorbitol hemi-acetal reaction products resulted in a more rapid release rate of cinnamaldehyde than would be typically predicted based on the affinity of cinnamaldehyde for the
gum base. In a third phase (3) solid phase lipid emulsions reported a significantly higher flavor release rate in comparison to liquid lipid systems.
Publications
- Ghosh, G., D.G. Peterson and J.N. Coupland. 2007. Aroma Release from Solid Droplet Emulsions: Effect of Lipid Type. JAOCS. 84 (11):1001-1014.
- Ghosh, S. 2007. Effect of dispersed phase crystallization on aroma release from oil-in-water emulsions. Ph.D. Thesis. The Pennsylvania State Univeristy, University Park, PA. 261 pp.
- Potineni, R. 2007. Mechanisms of Flavor Release and Perception in Sugar-Free Chewing Gum. Ph.D. Thesis. The Pennsylvania State Univeristy, Univeristy Park, PA. 157 pp.
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Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06
Outputs
Mechanisms of flavor delivery in chewing gum (project 1) and food emulsions (project 2) were defined. Project 1: The mechanisms for cinnamaldehyde release in a sugar-free chewing gum were investigated. Chewing gums containing (25%-Paloja gum base, 61 %-sugar alcohol, 4%-glycerine, 0.46% sweeteners, and 0.02% lecithin) were made with varying concentrations of cinnamaldehyde. Additionally chewing gums were made with p-cresol (similar log P as cinnamaldehyde). A cinnamaldehyde or cresol flavored gum base (no sugar alcohol) was also made to investigate the role of the gum base on flavor release. Three panelists were asked to chew gums or flavored gum base, while aroma release profile was tracked from the nose exhaled breath using APCI-MS over a period of 8 min. The release profile of cinnamaldehyde from chewing gum was found to correlate with the sugar alcohol release in a sugar free gum. Chewing gums made with varying amounts of cinnamaldehyde (0.29 - 2.9 mg/g of chewing
gum) did not show any differences in release pattern suggesting no concentration effect. Furthermore, the cinnamaldehyde release pattern from the gum base was similar to cresol or as predicted from the log cP value (distribution coefficient between the gum base and water). These findings suggested cinnamaldehyde was interacting with the sugar alcohol phase, possibility due to transient hemi-acetal reactions mechanisms, which resulted in a more rapid release rate than would be predicted based on the hydrophobicity of this compound. Project 2: The influence of the lipid physical state (solid versus liquied) on the release of aroma compounds (ethyl butyrate, ethyl pentanoate, ethyl heptanoate, and ethyl octanoate) from a series of sodium caseinate-stabilized, n-eicosane emulsions was investigated. For all compounds, headspace volatile concentrations above the solid droplet emulsions were higher than those above the liquid droplet emulsions. The interaction with liquid droplets could be
modeled in terms of volume-weighted bulk partition coefficients while the more nonpolar volatiles bound to the surface of solid lipid droplets. The amount of volatiles bound to solid surfaces increased with aqueous concentration up to a critical point and then rapidly increased. The critical point corresponds to the dissolution of the solid lipid in a phase of adsorbed volatile. The binding of volatiles to both solid and liquid eicosane droplets is reversible
Impacts
The flavor properties of foods are undoubtedly a key attribute for product consumption. Defining mechanisms of flavor release in chewing gum or food emulsions should provide information to manufacture these products with enhanced flavor attributes and improved product quality.
Publications
- Schwambach, S.L. and Peterson, D.G. 2006. Reduction of stale flavor development in low-heat skim milk powder via epicatechin addition. J. Ag. Fd. Chem. 54: 502-508.
- Ghosh, S., Peterson, D.G., and Coupland, J.N. 2006. Effects of droplet crystallization and melting on the aroma release properties of a model oil-in-water emulsion. J. Ag. Fd. Chem. 54:1829-1837.
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Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05
Outputs
Phase 1 - Flavor development/matrix composition: The influence of epicatechin (EC) on off-flavor development in low-heat skim milk powder samples during processing and storage was investigated. Milk powder samples were prepared from a concentrated skim milk (control) plus a concentrated skim milk with EC (treatment). Volatile extracts of the powders were analyzed by aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) at 0 days and after 17 months of storage in conjunction with sensory analysis of the flavor attributes. The treatment milk powders with EC added prior to drying reported a reduction in the formation of three main compounds, 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3-(2H)-furanone, o-aminoacetophenone, and furfural, by 8-, 4-, and 4-fold for the 0 day old samples, while for the 17 month aged samples o-aminoacetophenone was the major compound reduced in formation by 8-fold, respectively, based on the flavor dilution factors reported. The sensory evaluations indicated that the treatment
milk powders for 0 day old and 17 month aged samples were statistically lower (correlation coefficient = 0.05) in stale flavor intensity in comparison to the respective control samples, while no differences were noted in bitterness intensity. Phase II - Flavor release and preception: Flavor perception of food products is a complex function consisting of multiple stimuli that can be better understood by combining analytical methods which can monitor the release profiles of key flavor stimuli in vivo in conjunction with sensory panel analysis. The influence of aroma/taste/texture interactions on flavor perception using chewing gum as a model system was investigated. Chewing gums were made with three different ingredients(triacetin or propylene glycol or medium chain triglycerides). The aroma release, sugar alcohol release, and textual properties of these chewing gum model systems were analytically characterized in vivo for three panelists over a 12-min chewing period. Volatile analyses
were conducted by breath analysis (in vivo) via APCI-MS on chewing gum samples. Sorbitol release was tracked via HPLC-RID on the saliva samples, sampled at various times during the chewing period. Textural properties of the gums were estimated using TX-XT2 (hardness). A time-intensity sensory study (TI) was also conducted using a trained sensory panel. In summary, the choice of flavor solvent did influence the overall flavor perception of chewing gum (based on TI evaluations). Interestingly, solvent-type did not influence the volatile aroma release or sorbitol release.
Impacts
Improving our understanding of how matrix composition influences the flavor properties of foods (i.e. generation/stability or key stimuli) will provide processors key informatin to improve the quality of ingredients and food products.
Publications
- Gallaher, J.J, Peterson, D.G., Roberts, R.F. and Coupland, J.N. 2005. Effect of composition and antioxidants on the oxidative stability of fluid milk supplemented with an omega-3 oil rich emulsion. International Dairy Journal. 15: 333-341.
- Morawicki, R.O., Beelman, R, B., Peterson, D.G. and Ziegler, G. 2005. Biosynthesis of 1-octen-3-ol and 10-oxo-trans-8-decenoic acid using a mushroom homogenate. Optimization of the reaction, part I: kinetic factors. Process Biochemistry. 40:131-137
- Colahan-Sederstrom, P.M. and Peterson, D.G. 2005. Inhibition of key aroma compound generated during ultra-high temperature processing of bovine milk via epicatechin addition. J. Ag. Fd. Chem.53: 389-402.
- Morawicki, R.O., Beelman, R.B., Peterson, D.G. and Demirci, A. 2005. Biosynthesis of 1-octen-3-ol and 10-oxo-trans-8-decenoic acid using a crude homogenate of Agaricus bisporus: Reaction Scale Up. J. Food Sci. 70(5):367-371.
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Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04
Outputs
Phase I - Flavor loss in dairy products has been associated with enzymatic degradation by xanthine oxidase. This study was conducted to investigate the influence of milk thermal processing conditions (or xanthine oxidase inactivation) on benzaldehyde stability. Benzaldehyde was added to whole milk which had been thermally processed at four different levels (1) none or raw, (2) HTST pasteurized, (3) HTST pasteurized which was additionally heated to 100C (PAH) and (4) UHT sterilized. Additionally, PAH and UHT milk samples containing benzaldehyde (with and without ferrous sulfate) were spiked with xanthine oxidase. The concentration of benzaldehyde and benzoic acid in all milk samples were determined at day 0, 1, 2, 4, 6 (stored at 5C) by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in selective ion monitory mode. Over the six-day storage period more than 80% of the benzaldehyde content was converted (oxidized) to benzoic acid in raw and pasteurized milk, while no change in the
benzaldehyde concentration were found in PAH or UHT milk samples. Furthermore, the addition of xanthine oxidase or xanthine oxidase plus ferrous sulfate to PAH or UHT milk samples did not result in benzaldehyde degradation over the storage period. Phase II - A common problem associated with thermal processing of many food/beverage products is the simultaneous generation of flavor/off-flavor compounds that ultimately result in the development of negative product traits. For example, ultra-high temperature (UHT) processed milk has a cooked flavor that is often considered a flavor defect. Recently our research group has reported that Flavonoids, such as EC, can be used to inhibit the thermal generation of aroma compounds. Our objective was to evaluate the ability of epicatechin (EC) to inhibit the thermal development of aroma compounds formed during UHT milk processing. Whole raw milk (control) and whole raw milk with three different levels of EC (0.01, 0.1 and 0.2%) were processed under
UHT conditions (138C for 3 seconds). Aroma isolates of the control UHT milk and the UHT milk with 0.1% EC were prepared by solvent assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE) and subjected to Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis (AEDA) to determine differences in key aroma compounds. Key compounds were identified via their linear retention indices, mass spectra, and odor characteristics. A trained sensory panel was also used to evaluate the intensity of cooked flavor in the control and three treatment samples as well as a commercial pasteurized milk sample for comparison. The AEDA indicated that addition of EC prior to UHT processing of raw fluid milk reduced the overall thermal formation of key aroma-active compounds (i.e. 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline, skatole, o-aminoacetophenone and methional) in comparison to the control UHT milk. Furthermore, the sensory evaluation showed that all treatment samples had statistically (P<0.05) lower cooked flavor in comparison to the control,
while the 0.2% EC sample was statistical similar to pasteurized milk sample. These results indicate that flavonoids (i.e. EC) can be used to control the formation of thermally induced aroma compounds during heat processing.
Impacts
Improving our chemical understanding of dairy flavor properties (i.e. generation/stability) will provide processors key informatin to improve the image or quality of dairy-based ingredients and products.
Publications
- Potineni, R.V. and Peterson, D.G. 2004. Influence of thermal processing conditions on flavor stability in fluid milk: benzaldehyde. J. Dairy Sci. 88:1-6.
- Schober, A.L. and Peterson, D. G. 2004. Flavor Release and Perception in Hard Candy: Influence of Flavor Compound-Compound Interactions. J. Ag. Fd. Chem. 52: 2623-2627.
- Schober, A.L. and Peterson, D. G. 2004. Flavor Release and Perception in Hard Candy: Influence of Flavor Compound-Flavor Solvent Interactions. J. Ag. Fd. Chem. 52: 2628-2631.
- Schober, A.L. 2004. The Effect of Molecular Interactions on Flavor Release and FLavor Perception in Hard Candy. M.S. Thesis. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 89 pp.
- Paula M. Colahan-Sederstrom. 2004. Inhibition of Key Aroma Compounds Generated During Ultra-High Temperature Processing of Bovine Milk Via Epicatechin Addition. M.S. Thesis. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 79 pp.
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Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03
Outputs
Objective 1: Analytically define the character impact aroma compounds in food and agricultural/industrial products. The key aroma compounds which are responsible for the cooked flavor properties of ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk are not well defined. We conducted intensive studies to first define the key aroma compounds responsible for the cooked note and second based on the data from objective one, to define matrix parameters which could be used to control the kinetic pathway responsible for the cooked flavor formation. Aroma isolated were prepared and subjected to the gas chromatography-olfactometry technique Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis (AEDA) for the characterization of key odorants. This technique allows both the character and relative intensity of the odorants to be measured. The AEDA indicated key cooked compounds were: 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline, skatole, o-aminoacetophenone and methional. Furthermore, the formation of these compounds
potential can be inhibited during UHT processing via radical mechanisms. Objective 2: Define physico-chemical properties of food and agricultural/pharmaceutical products that affect the release kinetics of aroma compounds. The influence of molecular interactions, inclusions, and bulk properties (e.g. viscosity) on the flavor release properties will be investigated. Matrix interactions which influence the release kinetics and perception of flavor compounds in hard candy were investigated. Analytical bench top candy was prepared (binary flavor system) and used to study the influence of flavor delivery mode on flavor release by breath analysis (in vivo). The breath analysis indicated that flavor release and perception were both suppressed in the binary flavor mixture when the flavor compounds were added as a mixture versus if added separately to hard candy. This indicated that flavor-flavor interactions are important matrix parameters in hard candy and consequently influence the flavor
properties.
Impacts
Improving our understanding of the flavor properties of dairy products such as UHT milk, will provide processors with a chemical definition or benchmark for flavor properties integral to the product image or quality. Furthermore, by understanding key matrix interactions that influence the flavor release/perception properties of hard candy, processors will have information to improve flavor responses and utilization of flavoring materials in similar products.
Publications
- Nattress, L.A , Ziegler, G.R., Hollender, R and D.G. Peterson. 2003. The Impact of Hazelnut Paste on the Sensory Properties and Shelf Life of Dark Chocolate. Journal of Sensory Studies. Accepted for Publication
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