Progress 08/01/02 to 07/31/07
Outputs
Controlled Breeding: Artificial control of daylength enabled precise control of gonad development and year round production of viable eggs in southern flounder (SF), without affecting quality. Fatty acid profiles in southern flounder (SF) embryos provided a better understanding of the biochemical basis of egg quality. Through photothermal manipulation, BSB embryos were produced during winter and during their natural spring spawning season. Implantation of slow and fast-release GnRHa pellets at dose rates between 50-100 ug/kg induced volitional spawning. Group spawnings compensated for variable production of individual females. Interspecific hybrids between SF female x summer flounder male showed distinctive culture attributes. At 16-22 C, hybrid larvae grew faster than pure SF, but with lower survival. The reciprocal cross, however, was non-viable. Larval Culture: Availability of high quality eggs of SF and BSB accelerated experimental study of environmental and
nutritional requirements for larval culture. Photoperiod and salinity optima for larval SF were defined. The effects of temperature, salinity, and light intensity on embryos and early larval BSB were determined. In SF, larvae fed prey enriched with Nannochloropsis oculata performed equally to larvae fed DHA-enriched prey up to the metamorphic stages. ARA enrichment may not be required for SF larvae, although ARA effects on larval metamorphosis should be studied. BSB larvae fed prey containing 10% DHA and increasing ARA within the range of 0-6% showed improved growth and survival from first-feeding through metamorphic stages. Juvenile Culture: From d21 post-hatching, BSB larvae utilized a commercial microdiet (MD) (Otohime) with growth, survival and stress resistance not different from larvae co-fed live Artemia and MD. Live Artemia may therefore be replaced by MD Otohime during larval culture of BSB. Growout: Juvenile SF grew equally well to market sizes in recirculating systems (RAS)
in freshwater and seawater, demonstrating a versatility for intensive aquaculture in inland and coastal sites. Small wild BSB were grown in a RAS to market sizes at high stocking densities (58 kg/m3, 0.49 lbs/gal) and captured premium live market prices. Economic analysis of a small-scale marine RAS for ongrowing of small, wild BSB in coastal NC showed commercial viability. Effluent Management: Effluent from a marine RAS was an excellent nutrient source for the production of the valuable marine microalgae Isochrysis galbana and wild plankton in the laboratory and in large outdoor bioreactors. Initial studies have shown that oysters (Crassostrea virginica) reduced TSS and microalgal cell concentrations in effluent-based microalgal cultures. In summary, we have established a strong foundation of experimentally-based data on controlled breeding, larviculture, juvenile growout and effluent management to support commercial aquaculture of SF and BSB. Based on these technologies, we have
written a practical hatchery manual for SF to transfer technology to commercial end users. To improve growth and productivity for farmers, monosex female SF populations are now being developed.
Impacts
Photothermal manipulation enabled control of gonad development and year round production of high quality eggs in southern flounder (SF). Fatty acid (FA) profiles in SF embryos provided a better understanding of egg quality. Using photothermal manipulation, BSB embryos were produced during both winter and spring. These techniques improved availability of seed for commercial aquaculture. SF x summer flounder hybrid larvae displayed unique traits; their performance through marketable stages merits evaluation. Advances in controlled breeding accelerated research on environmental (photoperiod, light intensity, temperature, and salinity) and nutritional (essential FAs DHA and ARA) needs of larvae for efficient culture through juvenile stages. Live Artemia may be replaced by artificial microdiets during larval culture of BSB. Equivalent growth of juvenile SF in recirculating systems (RAS) in SW and FW demonstrated versatility for intensive farming in inland and coastal sites.
Small, wild BSB were grown to market sizes in a RAS at commercial densities and captured premium market prices. A small-scale marine RAS for ongrowing of small, wild BSB in NC was economically viable. Effluent from a marine RAS for SF was an excellent nutrient source to grow valuable microalgae (Isochrysis galbana) in outdoor bioreactors and to mitigate RAS wastes. Oysters (Crassostrea virginica) reduced TSS and microalgal cell concentrations in effluent-based laboratory cultures. Workshops are underway to transfer technology to end users, and commercial production has begun in NC.
Publications
- Published abstracts: Copeland, K.A. and W.O. Watanabe. 2005. Further investigations on growth of wild black sea bass Centropristis striata subadults in a recirculating aquaculture system at high densities. Aquaculture America 2005, New Orleans, LA.
- Copeland, K.A., W.O. Watanabe and J. K. Yates. 2005. Light intensity effects on early life stages of black sea bass Centropristis striata. Aquaculture America 2005, New Orleans, LA.
- Rezek, T.C., W.O. Watanabe, M. Harel and P. Seaton. 2005. The effects of dietary arachidonic acid (20: 4 n-6) on growth, survival and stress resistance in black sea bass Centropristis striata larvae. Aquaculture America 2005, New Orleans, LA.
- Alam, M.S., W.O. Watanabe and K.A. Copeland. 2006. Evaluation of practical microdiets for replacement of live Artemia for culture of larval black sea bass Centropristis striata. Aqua America 2006, Las Vegas, Nevada.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe and K.A. Copeland. 2006. Comparison of different microalgal species in live and non-viable forms as background during culture of larval southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigm. Aqua America 2006, Las Vegas, Nevada.
- Murashige, R., L.N. Shewmon, S.G. Truesdale, J.A. Luckenbach, A.J. Morgan, W.O. Watanabe, C.A. Woolridge, T.M. Losordo, D. DeLong, R. Borski, J. Godwin and H.V. 2006. Near commercial scale production of southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma in freshwater recirculating systems. Aqua America 2006, Las Vegas, Nevada.
- Myers, A.R., A.E. Wilbur and W.O. Watanabe. 2006. RAS integration of eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) and hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) culture for effluent nutrient composition reduction. National Shellfish Conference, 98th Annual Meeting, March 2006, Monterrey, CA.
- Rezek, T.C., W.O. Watanabe, M. Harel and P.J. Seaton. 2006. The effects of dietary arachidonic acid (20:4n6) on growth, survival and hypersaline stress resistance in larval southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma. Aqua America 2006, Las Vegas, Nevada.
- Truesdale, S.G., W.O. Watanabe, A.E. Wilbur, T.M. Losordo and C.R. Tomas. 2006. Characterization of the effluent from an intensive marine recirculating system for southern flounder and studies on effluent-based culture of microalgae. Aqua America 2006, Las Vegas, Nevada.
- Watanabe, W.O., A.E. White, P. Seaton and T.I.J. Smith. 2006. Optimizing dose and mode of administration of LHRHa for induced spawning of black sea bass Centropristis striata. Aqua 2006, Florence, Italy.
- White, A.E., W.O. Watanabe and T.I.J. 2006. Optimizing dose and mode of administration of LHRH-a for induced spawning of black sea bass Centropristis striata. Aqua 2006, Florence, Italy.
- Moustakas, C. Th., W.O. Watanabe and K.A. Copeland. 2004. Combined effects of photoperiod and salinity on growth, survival, and osmoregulatory ability of southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma. Aquaculture 229: 159-179.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe and T.M. Losordo. 2005. Pilot production of hatchery-reared summer flounder in a marine recirculating aquaculture system: the effects of ration level on growth, feed conversion, and survival. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 36: 120-128.
- Copeland, K.A., W.O. Watanabe and C. Dumas. 2005. Economic evaluation of a small-scale recirculating system for ongrowing of captive wild black sea bass Centropristis striata in North Carolina. Journal World Aquaculture Society: 36: 489-497.
- Watanabe, W.O., Woolridge, C.A. and H.V. Daniels. 2006. Progress toward year-round spawning of southern flounder broodstock by manipulation of temperature and photoperiod. Journal of the World Aquacultulture Society 37: 256-272.
- Copeland, K.A., Watanabe, W.O. and Yates, J.K. 2006. Light intensity effects on early life stages of black sea bass, Centropristis striata. Aquaculture Research 37: 1458-1463.
- Submitted for peer-review: Yates, J.K., C.F. Dumas, W.O. Watanabe, P.M. Carroll and T.M. Losordo. 2007.(Accepted for publication pending revision). Production economics of summer flounder aquaculture. Journal World Aquaculture Society.
- Non peer-reviewed: Watanabe, W.O., K.A. Copeland, P.M Carroll, and J.K Yates. 2003. Progress in on-growing of captive wild black sea bass Centropristis striata in a recirculating tank system. Proceedings of The Fourth International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture: 101-105.
- Peer-reviewed: Daniels, H.V. and W.O. Watanabe. 2003. A practical hatchery manual: Production of southern flounder fingerlings. North Carolina Sea Grant. 40 pp.
- Henne, J.P. and W.O. Watanabe. 2003. Effects of light intensity and salinity on growth, survival and osmoregulatory ability of southern flounder larvae Paralichthys lethostigma. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 34: 450-465.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe and T.M. Losordo. 2003. Microbead media offers low cost, efficiency in RAS biofilters. Global Aquaculture Advocate 6: 36-37.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe, K.A. Copeland and A.E. White. 2004. Recent progress in induced spawning and larval and juvenile culture of black sea bass Centropristis striata. Fifth International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture. Virginia Tech. Virginia Sea Grant/NOAA.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe, K.A. Copeland and A.E. White. 2004. Recent progress in induced spawning and larval and juvenile culture of black sea bass Centropristis striata. Fifth International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture. Virginia Tech. Virginia Sea Grant/NOAA.
- Yates, J.K., C.F. Dumas, W.O. Watanabe, P.M. Carroll and T.M. Losordo. 2004. Production economics of flounder aquaculture. Global Aquaculture Advocate 7: 26-28.
- Daniels, H.V., T.M. Losordo, and W.O. Watanabe. 2006. Southern flounder aquaculture workshop. March 16-17, 2006, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
- Shewmon, L.N., H.V. Daniels, W.O. Watanabe, R. Murashige, R. Dunning, C. Woolridge. 2006. Hatchery economics for southern flounder. Southern Flounder Aquaculture Workshop, March 2006, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina.
- Watanabe, W.O., Woolridge, C.A. and Daniels, H.V. 2006. Practical guide to controlled breeding of southern flounder. Southern flounder aquaculture workshop. March 16-17, 2006, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
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Progress 10/01/04 to 09/30/05
Outputs
In 2004, we used accelerated 7-mo. photothermal regimes beginning in Jun to achieve early maturation and spawning of black sea bass (BSB)in winter (Dec-Feb). Successful out-of-season spawning has been achieved over two successive seasons. Interspecific hybridization between southern flounder (female) and southern flounder (male) yielded progeny with distinct culture attributes. Within the range 16-22 C, hybrid larvae grew fast than pure strain southern flounder, but with lower survival. The reciprocal cross (summer female x southern male) produced abnormal embryos and no survival to hatching. Growth and survival of early stage southern flounder larvae were maximized under long photoperiods of 18-24L and in full strength seawater. Growth and feed conversion of hatchery-reared southern flounder were not different under salinities of 35 g/L and 10 g/L, indicating that this species is suitable for culture in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) under a wide range of
salinities. Under salinities of 28 and 35 g/L, temperatures of 19-25 C were favorable for culture of embryos and early larval BSB; however, higher temperatures within this range produced faster growth. A temperature of 16 C caused poor embryo survival at 28 ppt and abnormal yolksac larval development at 35 ppt. Higher light intensities within the range of 100-1,500 lx improved growth and survival of early larval BSB, suggesting that even higher light intensities may improve culture performance. BSB larvae fed prey containing 10% DHA showed better growth, survival and stress resistance than those fed 0% DHA. Increased ARA within the range of 0-6% improved growth and survival from the first-feeding through metamorphic stages, suggesting that even higher levels should be tested. An economic analysis of a small-scale marine RAS was performed for ongrowing of small, wild BSB in coastal NC. Initial investment in construction and equipment is $84,506 (10-yr life), fish are grown to a
harvestable weight of 1 kg/fish ($2.24/lb), product price (farm gate basis) is $10.10/kg ($4.50/lb), and breakeven price is $7.02/kg ($3.13/lb). Measures of financial performance for the base case, 10-yr scenario are: annual return to management, $18,819, net present value (5% discount rate), $145,313; internal rate of return on initial investment, 37%; and discounted payback period on initial investment, 3.2 yr. Egg quality in southern flounder was not correlated with total lipid content, or with any individual FA, class of FA, or ratios of FA types or classes. Studies are needed to determine possible relationships between egg quality and fatty acid composition of specific classes of egg lipids as well as other biochemical components (e.g. free amino acids). Undiluted effluent from an intensive marine RAS for southern flounder can support the growth of the valuable marine microalga I. galbana in the laboratory at rates better than those produced by a commercial nutrient formulation.
A clear depletion of dissolved nutrients was observed with microalgal growth. Laboratory results were successfully scaled up to outdoor bioreactors (1,200 L).
Impacts
Through photothermal manipulation, BSB embryos were produced during winter, outside their spring spawning season. Work with interspecific hybrids (southern flounder female x summer flounder male) has demonstrated their unique traits and, that the reciprocal cross is non-viable. Progress in controlled breeding of southern flounder and BSB has accelerated experimental study of larvae for greater understanding of environmental and nutritional needs for efficient culture through juvenile stages. Photoperiod and salinity optima for larval southern flounder were defined. Fatty acid profiles in southern flounder provided a better understanding of the biochemical basis of egg quality. Equivalent growth performance of juvenile southern flounder in recirculating systems (RAS) under a wide range of salinities demonstrates a versatility for intensive aquaculture in inland and coastal sites. The effects of temperature, salinity, and light intensity on embryos and early larval BSB
were determined, as were the effects of dietary ARA through pre-juvenile stages. An economic analysis of a small-scale marine RAS was performed for ongrowing of small, wild BSB in coastal NC showed commercial viability and provided impetus for development of hatchery and growout technologies. The use of undiluted effluent from a marine RAS for southern flounder to grow the valuable marine microalga Isochrysis galbana was scaled up from the laboratory to outdoor bioreactors. Integrated polyculture shows promise as a method of mitigating the environmental impacts of intensive marine fish farming.
Publications
- Watanabe, W.O., K.A. Copeland, P.M. Carroll and J.K Yates. 2002. Progress in on-growing of captive wild black sea bass Centropristis striata in a recirculating tank system. Proceedings of the International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture Systems, 101-105. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
- Watanabe, W.O., K.A. Copeland, P.M Carroll, and J.K Yates. 2003. Black sea bass ongrowing may provide transition between commercial fishing and aquaculture. Global Aquaculture Advocate 6: 64-66.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe and T.M. Losordo. 2003. Microbead media offers low cost, efficiency in RAS biofilters. Global Aquaculture Advocate 6: 36-37.
- Yates, J.K., C.F. Dumas, W.O. Watanabe, P.M. Carroll and T.M. Losordo. 2004. Production economics of flounder aquaculture. Global Aquaculture Advocate 7: 26-28.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe, K.A. Copeland and A.E. White. 2004. Recent progress in induced spawning and larval and juvenile culture of black sea bass Centropristis striata. Fifth International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture. Virginia Tech. Virginia Sea Grant/NOAA.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe and T.M. Losordo. 2005. Pilot production of hatchery-reared summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus in a marine recirculating aquaculture system: The effects of ration level on growth, feed conversion, and survival. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society: 36: 120-128.
- Watanabe, W.O., D.D. Benetti, M.W. Feeley, D. A. Davis and R.P. Phelps. 2005. In: A.M. Kelly and J. Silverstein, editors. Status of artificial propagation of mutton, yellowtail and red snapper (family Lutjanidae) in the southeastern U.S. Aquaculture in the 21st Century. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
- Copeland, K.A., W.O. Watanabe and C. Dumas. 2005. Economic evaluation of a small-scale recirculating system for ongrowing of captive wild black sea bass Centropristis striata in North Carolina. Journal World Aquaculture Society 36: 489-497.
- Bentley, C.D., P.M. Carroll, A.M. Riedel and W.O. Watanabe. 2005. Intensive rotifer production in a pilot-scale continuous culture recirculating system using condensed microalgae. Global Aquaculture Advocate Aug. 2005: 54-55.
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Progress 10/01/03 to 09/30/04
Outputs
Through artificial photothermal manipulation, natural spawnings of southern flounder were obtained during winter, and spawnings were hormonally induced in fall, spring and summer, yielding hundreds of thousands of viable embryos each season. Hybrid larvae between southern flounder and summer flounder grew faster than pure southern flounder at 16 to 22 C. Slow-release LHRH-a pellets at a dose of 50 ug/kg stimulated more egg production in black sea bass (BSB) than 5 ug/kg, with no effect on egg viability. A dose of 100 ug/kg bw stimulated even greater egg production than lower doses, but with female mortality. Doses between 50 and 100 ug/kg may optimize egg and larval production, without hormone overstimulation. Low quality eggs (< 20% hatching success) contained less energy-providing saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids than high quality eggs (> 20% hatching success). Enrichment media for live prey, High-DHA Selco (fish oil) and Algamac 2000
(heterotrophically-grown microalga) were compared for larval BSB. No significant differences in larval growth, survival, or stress resistance were observed under these treatments, but Algamac was simpler to use. Under laboratory conditions, growth and survival of hatchery-reared BSB at 22 and 25 C were markedly higher than at 28 C or at 31 C. Approx. 18,000 BSB larvae were successfully reared through metamorphic stages, with 2,750 reaching d305 ph ( 50.5 g). Growth (DWG 2.6 g/d), FCR (1.6) and survival (96%) of captive wild BSB in a RAS at densities of 30 and 69 fish/m3 were similar over 258 d. Final biomass densities reached 58 kg/m3 (0.49 lb/gal), and fish were sold live for $13.20/kg ($6.00/lb). Small wild BSB can be grown in a RAS at high stocking densities and captured premium prices in the live seafood market. Growth of hatchery-reared summer flounder fingerlings under 10 g/L (0.49 g/d) was much slower than in full-strength seawater (1.27 g/d), suggesting growth impairment in
low-salinity. A model RAS grow-out operation for summer flounder comprised 3 x 1-acre facilities, each consisting of 16, 27-ft dia. tanks. At a sale price of $11.00/kg ($5.00/lb), returns to management were $216,311/cycle. Improving growth rates through monosex female culture and reducing fingerling costs are promising means of improving profitability. An integrated finfish-microalgae-shellfish polyculture system was built to funnel effluent from the finfish RAS through microalgal bioreactors and then through an upweller system for shellfish. Approx. 1.6% of the total RAS volume was released as effluent each day. Avg. nutrient concentrations (mg/L) were as follows: total P = 36.9, total N = 27.6, PO-4 = 18.1, NH-3 = 8.2, NO-3 = 0.65, and NO-2. TSS was 565, while BOD5 averaged 102.5. Total P and total N represented 1.17 and 0.57%, respectively, of total feed input. Of total feed input, 0.86% were dissolved constituents, while 17.9% was discharged as solids. RAS effluent stimulated
growth of the marine microalga Isochrysis galbana at rates similar to those produced by a commercial nutrient formulation.
Impacts
Through photothermal manipulation, large numbers of southern flounder embryos are being produced throughout the year. Our work with interspecific hybrids (southern flounder x summer flounder) has demonstrated their unique attributes. Through controlled maturation and spawning, viable embryos of black sea bass (BSB) are also being produced outside their normal breeding season. Differences in specific fatty acid content between high and low quality BSB eggs were found and may help us develop dietary regimes for broodstock that optimize egg quality. Progress in controlled breeding of southern flounder and BSB has accelerated experimental study of larvae to improve our understanding of environmental and nutritional requirements. A practical hatchery manual for production of southern flounder fingerlings has resulted, and tens of thousands of fingerling southern flounder and BSB are being produced for growout trials. We have demonstrated that summer flounder, southern
flounder and BSB can be grown at high densities in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), and critical data on environmental and dietary requirements for growth are being obtained. Tank-raised BSB received premium prices in live markets, and economic models showed that improving growth rates and reducing fingerling costs are the most effective means of achieving profitability. Effluent discharged from an RAS for flounder is very effective in stimulating growth of Isochrysis galbana, a valuable microalgal species. Integrated polyculture may mitigate environmental impacts of intensive fish farming.
Publications
- Henne, J.P. and W.O. Watanabe. 2003. Effects of light intensity and salinity on growth, survival and osmoregulatory ability of southern flounder larvae Paralichthys lethostigma. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 34: 450-465.
- Daniels, H.V. and W.O. Watanabe. 2003. A practical hatchery manual: Production of southern flounder fingerlings. North Carolina Sea Grant. 40 pp.
- Watanabe, W.O. and M.W. Feeley. 2003. Light intensity effects on embryos, prolarvae, and first-feeding stage larvae of the summer flounder. Journal of Applied Aquaculture 14: 179-200.
- Copeland, K.A., W.O. Watanabe, P.M. Carroll, K.S. Wheatley, and T.M. Losordo. 2003. Growth and feed utilization of captive wild black sea bass Centropristis striata at four different densities in a recirculating tank system. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 34: 300-307.
- Moustakas, C. Th., W.O. Watanabe and K.A. Copeland. 2004. Combined effects of photoperiod and salinity on growth, survival, and osmoregulatory ability of southern flounder Paralichthys lethostigma. Aquaculture Journal 229: 159-179.
- Watanabe, W.O., D.D. Benetti, M.W. Feeley, D. A. Davis and R.P. Phelps. 2004. In: A.M. Kelly, editor. Status of artificial propagation of mutton, yellowtail and red snapper (family Lutjanidae) in the southeastern U.S. Aquaculture in the 21st Century. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe and T.M. Losordo. 2005. Production of hatchery-reared summer flounder in a marine recirculating aquaculture system. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society (In Press).
- Watanabe, W.O. and K. Fitzsimmons. 2004. Farming of tilapia in saline waters. In: C.Webster and C. Lim, editors. Tilapia Culture, Nutrition, and Feeding. Haworth Press. (In Press)
- White, A., W.O. Watanabe and P.M. Carroll. Induced volitional spawning of black sea bass Centropristis striata with pelleted LHRH-A at two dose levels. Book of Abstracts. Aqua America 2003, US Aquaculture Society. Watanabe, W.O., C.M. Moustakas and K.A. Copeland. 2003. Photoperiod and salinity effects on growth, survival and osmoregulatory ability of larval southern flounder. Book of Abstracts. Aqua America 2003, US Aquaculture Society.
- Woolridge, C.A., S.J. Kinsey and W.O. Watanabe. 2003. Alterations in the composition of phosphorylated compounds during embryonic development in southern flounder examined by 31-P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Book of Abstracts, Aqua America 2003, US Aquaculture Society.
- Copeland, K.A., W.O. Watanabe and C. Dumas. 2003. Economic evaluation of a small-scale reciruclating system for production of black sea bass in North Carolina. Book of Abstracts. Aqua America 2003, US Aquaculture Society.
- Copeland, K.A., W.O. Watanabe and F. Montgomery. 2003. Growth and feed utilization of hatchery-reared juvenile southern flounder fed a practical diet in a recirculating system under two different salinities. Book of Abstracts, Aqua America 2003, US Aquaculture Society.
- Copeland, K.A. and W.O. Watanabe. Black Sea Bass Aquaculture. Book of Abstracts, Aqua America 2003, US Aquaculture Society.
- Carroll, P.M., A. Riedel and W.O. Watanabe. 2003. Intensive rotifer culture in a commercial scale recirculating system using the condensed microalgae Nannochloropsis oculata. Book of Abstracts, Aqua America 2003, US Aquaculture Society.
- Watanabe, W.O., K.A. Copeland, P.M Carroll, and J.K Yates. 2003. Progress in on-growing of captive wild black sea bass Centropristis striata in a recirculating tank system. Proceedings of The Fourth International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture 101-105.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe, and T.M. Losordo. Copeland. 2004. Pilot scale growout of hatchery-reared summer flounder in a marine recirculating system: constraints and research needs. Book of Abstracts, Aquaculture 2004, World Aquaculture Society.
- Carroll, P.M., W.O. Watanabe and K.A. Copeland. 2004. Comparison of early larval growth and survival of southern flounder and southern flounder (female) x summer flounder (male) interspecific hybrid under different temperatures. Book of Abstracts, Aquaculture 2004, World Aquaculture Society.
- Copeland, K.A., W.O. Watanabe, A. Mangino and K.S. Wheatley. 2004. Combined effects of temperature and salinity on early life stages of black sea bass. Aquaculture 2004, Honolulu, Hawaii. Book of Abstracts, Aquaculture 2004, World Aquaculture Society. Watanabe, W.O., C.A. Woolridge and P.M. Carroll. 2004. Recent progress toward year-round spawning of southern flounder broodstock. Book of Abstracts, Aquaculture 2004, World Aquaculture Society.
- White, Allison, W.O. Watanabe, and T.I.J. Smith. 2004. Further investigations on induced volitional spawning of black sea bass with pelleted LHRH-a. Book of Abstracts. Aquaculture 2004, World Aquaculture Society.
- Woolridge, C.A., P. Seaton and W.O. Watanabe. Fatty acid profiles of southern flounder during development. Book of Abstracts, Aquaculture 2004, World Aquaculture Society.
- Watanabe, W.O., T.I.J. Smith, D.L. Berlinsky, C.A. Woolridge, K.R. Stuart, K.A. Copeland and M.R. Denson. 2003. Volitional spawning of black sea bass Centropristis striata induced with pelleted luteinizing hormone releasing hormone-analogue. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 34: 319-331.
- Yates, K., C. Dumas, W.O. Watanabe and P.M. Carroll. 2004. Production economics of summer flounder aquaculture in a marine recirculating system. Book of Abstracts, Aquaculture 2004, World Aquaculture Society.
- Holland, D., P. Kemp, and W.O. Watanabe. 2004. Inter-institutional cooperative agreements and distance education in aquaculture. Book of Abstracts. Aquaculture 2004, Honolulu, Hawaii.
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