A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE SUSTAINABILITY OF FARMING SYSTEMS

• Sponsoring Institution: National Institute of Food and Agriculture
• Project Status: COMPLETE
• Funding Source: HATCH
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 0191283
• Project Start Date: Jan 1, 2010
• Project End Date: Dec 31, 2014
• Program Code: [(N/A)]- (N/A)

Recipient Organization
WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY
240 FRENCH ADMINISTRATION BLDG
PULLMAN,WA 99164-0001

Performing Department
Crop & Soil Sciences

Non Technical Summary
Farmers and consumers are raising serious questions about the sustainability of conventional farming systems because of their energy-intensive nature and their negative impacts on soil productivity, environmental quality, profitability, and human and animal health. A research thrust toward developing sustainable agricultural systems should be pursued because farmers and consumers are asking for this type of research, and it can give farmers more options. This project examines the potential of alternative farming systems, such as organic, biodynamic, no-till, and perennial grain, to reduce some of the negative effects of conventional agriculture. It analyzes the environmental, economic, and social sustainability of alternative and conventional farming systems using replicated experimental plots on both commercial farms and experiment stations or using adjacent fields of replicated commercial farm pairs. Indicators of sustainability include soil quality, crop yield and quality, financial performance, and environmental impact. Cropping systems studied include, but are not limited to, apple, strawberry, winegrape, and grain-based systems. Experience gained from this research will contribute to improvements in the production practices of alternative growers and in the ability of conventional growers to adopt more sustainable management approaches. This research will expand economic opportunities for farmers and promote reduced use of agrochemicals.

Animal Health Component

45%

Research Effort Categories

Basic

45%

Applied

45%

Developmental

10%

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
101	0199	2061	40%
205	1199	1070	10%
205	1599	1070	10%
205	1699	1070	10%
601	1599	3010	10%
601	1699	3010	10%
701	1499	1060	10%

Knowledge Area
601 - Economics of Agricultural Production and Farm Management; 205 - Plant Management Systems; 101 - Appraisal of Soil Resources; 701 - Nutrient Composition of Food;

Subject Of Investigation
1499 - Vegetables, general/other; 1699 - Pasture and forage crops, general/other; 1199 - Deciduous and small fruits, general/other; 1599 - Grain crops, general/other; 0199 - Soil and land, general;

Field Of Science
1060 - Biology (whole systems); 1070 - Ecology; 2061 - Pedology; 3010 - Economics;

Keywords

sustainable agriculture

alternative agriculture

farming systems research

organic farming

integrated farming

conventional farming

no-till agriculture

perennial grains

agroecology

Goals / Objectives
The overall goal of the project is to measure the environmental, economic, and social sustainability of alternative and conventional farming systems. Supporting objectives to meet this goal are as follows: 1. To assess soil quality on alternative and conventional farming systems. 2. To measure crop yield and quality on alternative and conventional farming systems. 3. To assess pest and disease incidence on alternative and conventional farming systems. 4. To evaluate the financial performance of alternative and conventional farming systems. 5. To assess the environmental impacts of alternative and conventional farming systems. 6. To assess the social impacts of alternative and conventional farming systems. Experience gained from this research will contribute to improvements in the production practices of organic and integrated growers and in the ability of conventional growers to convert to organic production methods or adopt integrated management approaches. This research will also benefit no-till and biodynamic growers. Results from this project will add to the knowledge base of alternative farming systems, expand economic opportunities for farmers, and promote reduced use of agrochemicals. This information will be disseminated to cooperative extension agents, growers, and students through talks given locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally and in press reports (via newspaper, radio, and television). Results will be published as posters or presentations at scientific meetings and in refereed journals, such as Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, Journal of Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, Soil Science Society of America Journal, and, if possible, Nature, Science, or PNAS USA. Benefits from this project will also contribute to enhanced sustainability of crop production systems in Washington State, the Pacific Northwest, the United States, and beyond.

Project Methods
Indicators of sustainability measured on plots or farms include soil quality, crop yield and quality, financial performance, and environmental quality. Soil quality is assessed by measuring numerous physical (e.g., bulk density, water content, aggregate stability, particle-size analysis, and structure), chemical (e.g., pH, EC, total N, NH4-N, N03-N, P, and K), and biological (e.g., earthworms, organic matter, readily oxidizable organic carbon, microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen, nematode community structure, and mineralizable nitrogen) properties. Crop yield and quality include above ground biomass production, grain/fruit mineral content, vitamin and antioxidant activity, protein content, and more. Financial performance includes farming system enterprise budgets, costs, returns, and net profits. Environmental quality includes measuring soil erosion rates, potential nitrate and pesticide contamination of groundwater, phosphate runoff, water quality, energy efficiency of farming operations, and more.

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/14

Outputs
Target Audience:The target audiences include farmers, consumers, scientists, industry groups (e.g., agrochemical companies), federal (e.g., U.S. Department of Agriculture) and state (e.g., Washington State Department of Agriculture) organizations, international organizations (e.g., U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization), and policymakers. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?The grants listed above funded and provided field and lab training of my fivePhD graduate students, whom I advise or co-advise. The grants also provided field and lab training for one technician and five undergraduate students at Washington State University. I also advise one online M.S. in Agriculture student, who is self-funded. For the project in Malawi (funded this year by the McKnight Foundation), my grad student is getting training in international research and development. We are also conducting all of our soil and plant analysis in the soils lab in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences at Bunda College. Here beneficiaries are the lab managers and technicians, as our funding has increased their lab capacity at Bunda College. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?We have published our results as refereed journal articles, book chapters, Extension bulletins, and conference abstracts. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? II managed or co-managed ten competitive grants in the area of farming systems research as follows: (i) USDA-NIFA Organic Transitions, A natural approach to human-pathogen suppression: Can biodiversity fill the gaps, $498,235, Co-PI; (ii) McKnight Foundation, MultispeQ sensor for plant and soil measurements in Africa, $300,000, Co-PD; (iii) WSDA Specialty Crop Block Grant Program, Evaluating aphid pest management and soil quality on organic and conventional apple orchards in Washington, $194,910, Co-PI; (iv) Washington Tree Fruit Research Commission, Dynamics of woolly apple aphids on organic and conventional orchards, $113,948, Co-PI; (v) CSANR BIOAg, Biodiversity and the natural suppression of human pathogens, $39,193, Co-PI; (vi) Agronomic Science Foundation, Optimizing cover crop and intercrop N management, $39,485, Co-PI; (vii) WSU-ARC-ERI, Introducing organic quinoa production systems in the Palouse, $18,950, PD; (viii) CSANR BIOAg, Introducing organic quinoa production systems in the Palouse, $18,950, PD; (ix) USDA-NIFA Organic Transitions, BAN-PESTS: biodiversity and natural pest suppression, $747,955, Co-PI; (x) USDA-NIFA-Organic Transitions, Role of Mixed Crop/Livestock Systems in Transitioning to Dryland Organic Farming in the Pacific Northwest, $695,078, PD; I am also managing one gift [Pacific Foods, Developing the Eggert Family Organic Farm, $9.45Million, PD]. Results were submitted and published as refereed journal articles. I continued to do a good job mentoring my sixgraduate students and advising my 30 undergraduate advisees in the Organic Agriculture Systems major. All sixof my graduate students work in the research area of sustainability of farming systems.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Klein, L.R., W.G. Hendrix, J.B. Kaytes, V.I. Lohr, R.D. Sayler , M.E. Swanson, and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Linking ecology and aesthetics in sustainable agricultural landscapes: Lessons from the Palouse region of Washington, U.S.A. Landscape and Urban Planning. doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.019
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2014 Citation: Sandhu, H., S. Wratten, R. Constanza, J. Pretty, J. R. Porter, and J. Reganold. 2014. Significance and value of non-traded ecosystem services on farmland. PeerJ. In Press.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2014 Citation: TerAvest, D., L. Carpenter-Boggs, C. Thierfelder, and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Crop production and soil water management in conservation agriculture, no-till, and conventional tillage systems in Malawi. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. In review.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2014 Citation: Crowder, D.W., and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Financial competitiveness of organic agriculture on a global scale. PNAS USA. In review.

Progress 10/01/13 to 09/30/14

Outputs
Target Audience: The target audiences include farmers, consumers, scientists, industry groups (e.g., agrochemical companies), federal (e.g., U.S. Department of Agriculture) and state (e.g., Washington State Department of Agriculture) organizations, international organizations (e.g., U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization), and policymakers. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? The grants listed above funded and provided field and lab training of my five PhD graduate students, whom I advise or co-advise. The grants also provided field and lab training for one technician and five undergraduate students at Washington State University. I also advise one online M.S. in Agriculture student, who is self-funded. For the project in Malawi (funded by USAID, CIMMYT, and the McKnight Foundation), my graduate student is getting training in international research and development. We are also conducting all of our soil and plant analysis in the soils lab in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences at Bunda College. Here beneficiaries are the lab managers and technicians, as our funding has increased their lab capacity at Bunda College. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? We have published our results as refereed journal articles, book chapters, Extension bulletins, and conference abstracts. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? I plan to continue being effective at managing grants and applying for new competitive grants. I want to continue doing a good job mentoring my graduate students and advising my undergraduate advisees. I also plan to publish results of my research in solid scientific journals and magazines.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? In 2014, I received eight competitive grants in the area of farming systems research as follows: (i) USDA-NIFA Organic Transitions, A natural approach to human-pathogen suppression: Can biodiversity fill the gaps, $498,235, Co-PI; (ii) McKnight Foundation, MultispeQ sensor for plant and soil measurements in Africa, $300,000, Co-PD; (iii) WSDA Specialty Crop Block Grant Program, Evaluating aphid pest management and soil quality on organic and conventional apple orchards in Washington, $194,910, Co-PI; (iv) Washington Tree Fruit Research Commission, Dynamics of woolly apple aphids on organic and conventional orchards, $113,948, Co-PI; (v) CSANR BIOAg, Biodiversity and the natural suppression of human pathogens, $39,193, Co-PI; (vi) Agronomic Science Foundation, Optimizing cover crop and intercrop N management, $19,501, Co-PI; (vii) WSU-ARC-ERI, Introducing organic quinoa production systems in the Palouse, $18,950, PD; (viii) CSANR BIOAg, Introducing organic quinoa production systems in the Palouse, $18,950, PD. In addition, I continued to manage or co-manage five ongoing competitive grants [CGIAR-CIMMYT, Sustainable intensification of maize-based agroecosystems in Malawi, $69,468, PD; USDA-NIFA Organic Transitions, BAN-PESTS: biodiversity and natural pest suppression, $747,955, Co-PI; USDA-NIFA-Organic Transitions, Role of Mixed Crop/Livestock Systems in Transitioning to Dryland Organic Farming in the Pacific Northwest, $695,078, PD; CGIAR-CIMMYT, Sustainable intensification of cereal-based agroecosystems, $85,000, PD; USAID, Borlaug Fellows in Global Food Security Grant Program, $39,736, Co-PD] and one gift [Pacific Foods, Developing the Eggert Family Organic Farm, $9.45 Million, PD]. Results so far have been published as refereed journal articles, book chapters, Extension bulletins, and conference abstracts. I continued to do a good job mentoring my six graduate students and advising my 30 undergraduate advisees in the Organic Agriculture Systems major. All six of my graduate students work in the research area of sustainability of farming systems. Six undergraduate advisees graduated in 2014 with a B.S. in Agricultural and Food Systems with a major in Organic Agriculture Systems at Washington State University.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Klein, L.R., W.G. Hendrix, J.B. Kaytes, V.I. Lohr, R.D. Sayler , M.E. Swanson, and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Linking ecology and aesthetics in sustainable agricultural landscapes: Lessons from the Palouse region of Washington, U.S.A. Landscape and Urban Planning. doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.10.019
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Awaiting Publication Year Published: 2014 Citation: Reganold, J.P., and J.D. Glover. 2014. Perenniation: transforming Africas farmed landscapes. Scientific American. In press.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2014 Citation: Sandhu, H., S. Wratten, R. Constanza, J. Pretty, J. R. Porter, and J. Reganold. 2014. Significance and value of non-traded ecosystem services on farmland. PeerJ. In review.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2014 Citation: TerAvest, D., L. Carpenter-Boggs, C. Thierfelder, and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Crop production and soil water management in conservation agriculture, no-till, and conventional tillage systems in Malawi. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. In review.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2014 Citation: TerAvest, D., L. Carpenter-Boggs, C. Thierfelder, and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Crop production and soil water management in conservation agriculture, no-till, and conventional tillage systems in Malawi. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. In submittal.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2014 Citation: Crowder, D.W., and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Financial competitiveness of organic agriculture on a global scale. PNAS USA. In submittal.
• Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Reganold, J.P. 2014. Perennial grain systems: a sustainable response to future food security challenges. In C. Batello, L. Wade, S. Cox, N. Pogna, A. Bozzini, and J. Choptiany (eds) Perennial Crops for Food Security. FAO, Rome, Italy. pp. 256-265.
• Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Wachter, J.M., and J.P. Reganold. 2014. Organic agricultural production: plants. In N.K. Van Alfen (ed) Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems, Vol.4. Elsevier, San Diego, CA. pp. 265-286.
• Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Reganold, J.P., and J.M. Wachter. 2013. Organic agriculture. In Y.Q. Wang (ed) Encyclopedia of Natural Resources. Taylor & Francis, New York, NY.
• Type: Websites Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Reganold, J. 2014. Smart soil: transforming American agriculture one class at a time. Huffington Post.
• Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: TerAvest, D., J. Reganold, and C. Thierfelder. 2014. Diversification of maize-based conservation agriculture: crop yields and residue production. Total LandCare and Washington State University Extension Bulletin 1/3, Total LandCare, Malawi.
• Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: TerAvest, D., J. Reganold, and C. Thierfelder. 2014. Diversification of maize-based conservation agriculture: soil-water relations. Total LandCare and Washington State University Extension Bulletin 2/3, Total LandCare, Malawi.
• Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: TerAvest, D., J. Reganold, and C. Thierfelder. 2014. Diversification of maize-based conservation agriculture: economic impacts on smallholder households. Total LandCare and Washington State University Extension Bulletin 3/3, Total LandCare, Lilongwe, Malawi.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Kaur, H., D.R. Huggins, R.A Rupp, J. Abazoglou, C.O., Stockle and J. Reganold. 2014. Bioclimatic predictors of agro-ecological classes and projected shifts under climate change. Agronomy Abstracts. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Carpenter-Boggs, L.A., B.R. Carlson, S.S. Higgins, and C.O. St�ckle. 2014. Decomposition of dairy manure assessed in the field by monitoring natural abundance of 13C. Soil Science Society of America Journal 78:1949-1952.

Progress 01/01/13 to 09/30/13

Outputs
Target Audience: Farmers, consumers, scientists, and policymakers. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? The grants listed above funded and provided field and lab training of my five PhD graduate students, whom I advise or co-advise. The grants also provided field and lab training for one technician and three undergraduate students at Washington State University. I also advise one online M.S. in Agriculture student, who is self-funded. For the project in Malawi (funded by USAID and CIMMYT), my grad student is getting training in international research and development. We are also conducting all of our soil and plant analysis in the soils lab in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences at Bunda College and their human nutrition lab. Here beneficiaries are the lab managers and technicians in both labs, as our funding has increased their lab capacity. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? We have published our results as three book chapters and two journal articles, with three more journal articles in review (one in review in the prestigious Scientific American). What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? I plan to continue to do a good job managing grants and applying for new competitive grants. I want to continue to do a good job mentoring my grad students and advising my undergraduate advisees. I also plan to publish results of my research in solid scientific journals and magazines.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? I received two competitive grants in the area of farming systems research. As PI, one on sustainable intensification of maize-based agroecosystems in Malawi was funded by CGIAR-CIMMYT for $69,468. As Co-PI, the other on biodiversity and natural pest suppression in organic vegetable production systems in the U.S. Pacific Northwest was funded by USDA-NIFA Organic Transitions for $747,955. I continued to manage three ongoing competitive grants [USDA-NIFA-Organic Transitions, Role of Mixed Crop/Livestock Systems in Transitioning to Dryland Organic Farming in the Pacific Northwest, $695,078; CGIAR-CIMMYT, Sustainable intensification of cereal-based agroecosystems, $85,000; USAID, Borlaug Fellows in Global Food Security Grant Program, $39,736] and one gift [Pacific Foods, Developing the Eggert Family Organic Farm, $9.45Million]. All of these grants deal with measuring the sustainability of farming systems. Results so far have been published as book chapters and in refereed journals (see section below on dissemination). Published results included the following: data on nutritional quality, fruit quality, soil health, and soil DNA of organic and conventional strawberry production systems; metrics and research approaches for scientists to use in comparing organic and conventional farming systems; two reviews in encyclopedias of the strengths and weaknesses of organic agriculture; and data on the value of the two ecosystem services, nitrogen mineralization and biological pest control, in 10 organic and 10 conventional grain production systems in New Zealand. I continued to do a good job mentoring my six graduate students and advising my 30 undergraduate advisees in Organic Agriculture Systems. All six of my graduate students work in the research area of sustainability of farming systems. Seven undergraduate advisees graduated in 2013 with a B.S. in Agricultural and Food Systems with a major in Organic Agriculture Systems at Washington State University.

Publications

• Type: Book Chapters Status: Awaiting Publication Year Published: 2013 Citation: Wachter, J.M., and J.P. Reganold. 2013. Organic agricultural production: plants. In N.K. van Alfen (ed) The Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems. Elsevier, Oxford, UK (In Press)
• Type: Book Chapters Status: Awaiting Publication Year Published: 2013 Citation: Reganold, J.P., and J.M. Wachter. 2013. Organic agriculture. In Y.Q. Wang (ed) Encyclopedia of Natural Resources. Taylor & Francis, New York, NY. (in Press)
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Reganold, J.P. 2013. Comparing organic and conventional farming systems: metrics and research approaches. Crop Management doi:10.1094/CM-2013-0429-01-RS.
• Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Reganold, J.P., P.K. Andrews, J.R. Reeve, L. Carpenter-Boggs, C.W. Schadt, J.R. Alldredge, C.F. Ross, N.M. Davies, and J. Zhou. 2013. Organic vs. conventional strawberry agroecosystem. In D. Rooney (ed.) Sustainable Soil Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 185-215.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2014 Citation: Reganold, J.P., and J.D. Glover. 2013. Perenniation: transforming Africas farmed landscapes. Scientific American. (Under Review)
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Under Review Year Published: 2014 Citation: Sandhu, H., S. Wratten, R. Costanza, J. Pretty, J. Porter, and J.P. Reganold. 2013. Global significance and value of non-traded ecosystem services on farmland. PLoS ONE. (Under Review)
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Abi-Ghanem, R., L. Carpenter-Boggs, R. Koenig, J. Ullman, K. Murphy, C. Pannkuk. 2013. Agricultural resource availability in Iraq: Insight from an Iraqi extension revitalization project. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education. 20:6-18.

Progress 01/01/12 to 12/31/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In a forum article in Nature, we argue that meta-analysis yield studies of organic and conventional farming systems show that organic yields are mostly lower than those from conventional farming, but that organic crops perform well in some contexts. Meta-analyses can be a great tool for identifying broad patterns not immediately visible in primary field research. If we want to feed a growing world population, producing adequate crop yields is vital, and meta-analysis studies bolster the argument that adoption of organic agriculture under conditions in which it performs best might close the yield gap between organic and conventional systems. In addition, organic farming provides multiple sustainability benefits, indicating that it can play a significant role in feeding the world. A review paper in Crop Management argues that with the rise of organic farming worldwide, researchers are being presented with new opportunities to study organic systems and also to compare them to their conventional counterparts. This paper focuses on farming systems research comparing organic and conventional agroecosystems and discusses the types of farming systems comparison studies, some of the metrics used, and integrative research approaches to farming systems studies. To hasten implementation of more sustainable agricultural systems, more farming systems comparison research, especially interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary, is needed, which brings together multiple disciplines and, when possible, non-academic participants to measure key sustainability indicators and/or ecosystem services. Such research does not just need to compare organic and conventional systems. In addition to organic farming systems, other innovative systems make up a modest, but growing, component of U.S. and global agriculture and include alternative livestock production, mixed crop/livestock systems, conservation agriculture, integrated farming, agroforestry, and perennial grains. Such systems integrate production, environmental, and socioeconomic objectives and reflect greater awareness of ecosystem services. These systems can be studied in farming systems research, in which they are compared with each other or with conventional systems. We make a case in the journal Nature for a relatively new type of sustainable agriculture, called "perenniation", that could restore the beleaguered soils of Africa, especially sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and help the continent feed itself in the coming decades. Perenniation mixes food crops with trees and perennial plants, which live for two years or more. Thousands of farmers are already trying variations of perenniation. Looking towards 2030, to meet the demand for grain and to feed a growing and much undernourished population in SSA, we argue that three transformative perenniation systems--evergreen agriculture, doubled-up legume, and push-pull systems--are needed in many parts of SSA. We propose the wide adoption of these three perenniation approaches that will deliver increased crop productivity, while improving resource-use efficiency and protecting environmental quality. PARTICIPANTS: P.K. Andrews, L. Carpenter-Boggs, C.M. Cox, D. Cuthbertson, N. Davies, J.D. Glover, D.R. Huggins, J.L. Kornegay, B.M.Lange, J.R. Reeve, R. Remans, J. Sachs, S. Smukler, D. TerAvest, J. Wachter, L. Winowiecki, and E. Zakarison. TARGET AUDIENCES: Farmers, consumers, scientists, and policymakers PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
From our research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. More specifically, experience gained from our research will contribute to improvements in the production practices of organic and integrated growers and in the ability of conventional growers to convert to organic production methods or adopt integrated management approaches. My research will also benefit no-till, conservation agriculture, and biodynamic growers and those interested in the development of perennial grains. The comprehensive data sets provided by our on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from our studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from our research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, at meetings with growers and agricultural consultants, during field days, and in farm magazines. Results will also be disseminated through talks we give locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally and via journalists and reporters in the press (newspapers, radio and television programs, and websites). Benefits from this project will contribute to enhanced sustainability of crop production systems in Washington State, the Pacific Northwest, the United States, and abroad.

Publications

• Sachs J., R.Remans, S.Smukler, L.Winowiecki, S.J.Andelman, K.G.Cassman, D.Castle, R.DeFries, G.Denning, J.Fanzo, L.E.Jackson, R.Leemans, J.Lehmann, J.C.Milder, S.Naeem, G.Nziguheba, C.A.Palm, P.L.Pingali, J.P.Reganold, D.D.Richter, S.J.Scherr, J.Sircely, C.Sullivan, T.P.Tomich, P.A.Sanchez 2012. Effective monitoring of agriculture: A response. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 14, 738-742. Issue 3. doi: 10.1039/C2EM10584E
• Reganold J.P. 2012. The fruits of organic farming. Nature. 485:176-177.
• Glover J.D., J.P.Reganold, C.M.Cox 2012. Plant perennials to save Africa's soils. Nature. 489:359-361.
• Cuthbertson D., P.K.Andrews, J.P.Reganold, N.Davies, B.M.Lange 2012. Utility of metabolomics toward assessing the metabolic basis of quality traits in apple fruit with an emphasis on antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 60:8552-8560.

Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In a policy forum article in Science, my colleagues and I contend that agriculture in the United States and many other countries is at a critical juncture. Public investments and policy reforms will inform landscape management practices to be used by farmers and ranchers for sustaining food and ecosystem security. Although U.S. farms have provided growing supplies of food and other products, they have also been major contributors to global greenhouse gases, biodiversity loss, natural resource degradation, and public health problems. Concerns about long-term sustainability have promoted interest in new forms of agriculture that (i) enhance the natural resource base and environment; (ii) make farming financially viable; and (iii) contribute to the well-being of farmers, farm workers, and rural communities; while still (iv) providing abundant, affordable food, feed, fiber, and fuel. A 2010 report by the U.S. National Research Council (whose committee I served on to write the report) identified numerous examples of innovative farming systems that contribute to multiple sustainability goals but noted they are not widespread. This report joins others critical of aspects of mainstream, conventional farming systems. In this Science paper, we argue that the slow expansion of such innovative farming systems in the United States is as much a policy and market problem as a science and technology problem. Incentives for appropriate markets, reform of U.S. farm-related policies, and reorientation of publicly funded agricultural science are needed to hasten implementation of more sustainable agricultural systems. A study in HortScience evaluated the effects of in-row groundcovers (bare ground, brassica seed meal, cultivation, wood chip mulch, legume cover crop, and non-legume cover crop) and three compost rates (48, 101, and 152 kg available nitrogen (N)/ha/year) on soil carbon (C) pools, biological activity, N supply, fruit yield, and tree growth in a newly planted apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) orchard. We used nonlinear regression analysis of C mineralization curves to differentiate C into active and slow soil C pools. Bare ground and cultivation had large active soil C pools, 1.07 and 0.89 g C/kg soil, respectively, but showed little stabilization of C into the slow soil C pool. The use of brassica seed meal resulted in increased soil N supply, the slow soil C pool, and earthworm activity but not total soil C and N, fruit yield, or tree growth. Legume and non-legume cover crops had increased microbial biomass and the slow soil C pool but had lower fruit yield and tree growth than all other groundcovers regardless of compost rate. Soils under wood chip mulch had elevated earthworm activity, total soil C and N, and the slow soil C pool. Wood chip mulch also had the greatest cumulative C mineralization and a high C:N ratio, which resulted in slight N immobilization. Nevertheless, trees in the two wood chip treatments ranked in the top four of the 13 treatments in both fruit yield and tree growth. Wood chip mulch offered the best balance of tree performance and soil quality of all treatments. PARTICIPANTS: P.K. Andrews, S.S. Batie, L. Carpenter-Boggs, J.D. Glover, R.R. Harwood, D. Jackson-Smith, J.L. Kornegay, J.R. Reeve, R. Remans, J. Sachs, J.L. Smith, S. Smukler, D. TerAvest, and L. Winowiecki TARGET AUDIENCES: Farmers, consumers, scientists, and policymakers PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
From my research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. More specifically, experience gained from my research will contribute to improvements in the production practices of organic and integrated growers and in the ability of conventional growers to convert to organic production methods or adopt integrated management approaches. My research will also benefit no-till and biodynamic growers and those interested in the development of perennial grains. The comprehensive data sets provided by my on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from my studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from my research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, at meetings with growers and agricultural consultants, during field days, and in farm magazines. Results will also be disseminated through talks I give locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally and via journalists and reporters in the press (newspapers, radio and television programs, and websites). Benefits from this project will contribute to enhanced sustainability of crop production systems in Washington State, the Pacific Northwest, the United States, and abroad.

Publications

• Teravest, D., J.L.Smith, L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, D.M.Granatstein, L.Hoagland, and J.P.Reganold. 2011. Soil carbon pools, nitrogen supply, and tree performance under several groundcovers and compost rates in a newly planted apple orchard. HortScience : A Publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 46(12):1687-1694.
• Reganold, J.P., D.Jackson-Smith, S.S.Batie, R.R.Harwood, J.L.Kornegay, D.Bucks, C.B.Flora, J.Hanson, W.Jury, D.Meyer, A.Schumacher, Jr., H.Sehmsdorf, C.Shennan, L.A.Thrupp, and P.Willis. 2011. Transforming U.S. agriculture. Science. 332:670-671.

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Outputs: Global food security largely depends on annual grain crops, such as rice, wheat, and maize, which provide roughly 70% of human food calories. Annual grain crop production, though, often compromises essential ecosystem services, pushing some beyond sustainable boundaries. The development of perennial versions of the important annual grain crops could significantly expand existing options to sustainably feed the world. Compared to their annual counterparts, perennial plants have longer photosynthetic seasons, reduce erosion risks, sequester more carbon, and require less fuel, fertilizer, and pesticides. Past efforts to develop perennial grain crops were hindered by the lack of modern plant breeding technologies. However, new genetic technologies will allow plant breeders to develop lines and varieties with greater efficiency and speed. We make the case in three articles (Glover et al.; Glover et al; Glover and Reganold) for the expansion of perennial grain breeding programs for increasing global food and ecosystem security and discuss the obstacles, opportunities, and resource needs to advance them. To feed the world without further damaging the planet, we call for a global data collection and dissemination network to track the myriad impacts of different farming systems and practices (Sachs et al.). In general, agriculture is now assessed at different scales, using inconsistent methods and narrow criteria. A common set of metrics needs to be collected at comparable scales. The resultant, freely available data would inform farming practices worldwide. We evaluated three varieties of strawberries for mineral elements, shelf life, phytochemical composition, and organoleptic properties at multiple sampling times for two years from 13 pairs of commercial organic and conventional strawberry agroecosystems in California (Reganold et al.). We also analyzed traditional soil properties and soil DNA using microarray technology. We found that the organic farms had strawberries with longer shelf life, greater dry matter, and higher antioxidant activity and concentrations of ascorbic acid and phenolic compounds. In one variety, sensory panels judged organic strawberries to be sweeter and have better flavor, overall acceptance, and appearance than their conventional counterparts. We also found the organically farmed soils to have more total carbon and nitrogen, greater microbial biomass and activity, and higher concentrations of micronutrients. Organically farmed soils also exhibited greater numbers of endemic genes and greater functional gene abundance and diversity for several biogeochemical processes. Our findings show that the organic strawberry farms produced higher quality fruit and that their higher quality soils may have greater microbial functional capability and resilience to stress. I was one of 15 members of a National Academy of Sciences (NAS) 21st Century Systems Agriculture Committee from 2007-2010. The Committee wrote a 570-page report, Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century, which outlines the scientific directions necessary to move US agriculture more rapidly and efficiently toward sustainability. PARTICIPANTS: P.K. Andrews, J. Reeves, L. Carpenter-Boggs, C. Schadt, J.R. Alldredge, C. Ross, D. TerAvest, J.L. Smith, J.D. Glover, J. Sachs, R. Remans, S. Smukler, L. Winowiecki, and D. Chiras. TARGET AUDIENCES: Farmers, consumers, and scientists. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
From my research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. More specifically, experience gained from my research will contribute to improvements in the production practices of organic and integrated growers and in the ability of conventional growers to convert to organic production methods or adopt integrated management approaches. My research will also benefit no-till and biodynamic growers and those interested in the development of perennial grains. The comprehensive data sets provided by my on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from my studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from my research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, at meetings with growers and agricultural consultants, during field days, and in farm magazines. Results will also be disseminated through talks I give locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally and via journalists and reporters in the press (newspapers, radio and television programs, and websites). Benefits from this project will contribute to enhanced sustainability of crop production systems in Washington State, the Pacific Northwest, the United States, and abroad.

Publications

• Glover, J.D., J.P.Reganold, L.W.Bell, J.Borevitz, E.C.Brummer, E.S.Buckler, C.M.Cox, T.S.Cox, T.E.Crews, S.W.Culman, L.R.DeHaan, D.Eriksson, B.S.Gill, J.Holland, F.Hu, B.S.Hulke, A.M.Ibrahim, W.Jackson, S.S.Jones, S.C.Murray, A.H.Paterson, E.Ploschuk, E.J.Sacks, S.Snapp, D.Tao, D.L.Van Tassel, L.J.Wade, D.L.Wyse, and Y.Xu. 2010. Increasing food and ecosystem security via perennial grains. Science. 328:1638-1639.
• Reganold, J.P. 2010. The next revolution in farming. Scientific American. 303(Sept):97. Kornegay, J.L., R.R.Harwood, S.S.Batie, D.Bucks, C.B.Flora, J.Hanson, D.Jackson-Smith, W.Jury, D.Meyer, J.P.Reganold, A.Schumacher, Jr., H.Sehmsdorf, C.Shennan, L.A.Thrupp, and P.Willis. 2010. Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century. The National Academies Press.
• Sachs, J., R.Remans, S.Smukler, L.Winowiecki, S.J.Andelman, K.G.Cassman, D.Castle, R.DeFries, G.Denning, J.Fanzo, L.E.Jackson, R.Leemans, J.Lehmann, J.C.Milder, S.Naeem, G.Nziguheba, C.A.Palm, P.L.Pingali, J.P.Reganold, D.D.Richter, S.J.Scherr, J.Sircely, C.Sullivan, T.P.Tomich, and P.A.Sanchez. 2010. Monitoring the world's agriculture. Nature. 466:558-560.
• Glover, J.D., J.P.Reganold, L.W.Bell, J.Borevitz, E.C.Brummer, E.S.Buckler, C.M.Cox, T.S.Cox, T.E.Crews, S.W.Culman, L.R.DeHaan, D.Eriksson, B.S.Gill, J.Holland, F.Hu, B.S.Hulke, A.M.Ibrahim, W.Jackson, S.S.Jones, S.C.Murray, A.H.Paterson, E.Ploschuk, E.J.Sacks, S.Snapp, D.Tao, D.L.Van Tassel, L.J.Wade, D.L.Wyse, and Y.Xu. 2010. Perennial questions of hydrology and climate. Science. 330:33-34.
• Reganold, J.P., P.K.Andrews, J.Reeves, L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, C.Schadt, J.R.Alldredge, C.Ross, N.Davies, and J.Zhou. 2010. Fruit and soil quality of organic and conventional strawberry agroecosystems. PloS one 5(9).
• TerAvest, D., J.L.Smith, L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, L.Hoagland, D.M.Granatstein, and J.P.Reganold. 2010. Influence of orchard floor management and compost application timing on N partitioning in organically managed apple trees. HortScience : A Publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 45:637-642.
• Reeve, J., C.Schadt, L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, S.Kang, J.Zhou, and J.P.Reganold. 2010. Effects of soil type and farm management on soil ecological functional genes and microbial activities. ISME Journal 4:1099-1107.
• Reeve, J.R., L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, J.P.Reganold, A.York, and W.F.Brinton. 2010. Influence of biodynamic preparations on compost development and resultant compost extracts on wheat seedling growth. Bioresource Technology 101:5658 5666.
• Glover, J.D., and J.P.Reganold. 2010. Perennial grains: Food security for the future. Issues in Science and Technology. 26(Winter):41-47.

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Plants take up nitrogen principally in the form of nitrate and ammonium; however, evidence is growing that they can also use organic N in the form of amino acids. Selecting varieties that better use organic N could be important in maximizing productivity in organic and low-input systems because these varieties may access a wider pool of available nutrients. We tested amino acid-N uptake by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings over 24 h over a range of soil glycine concentrations. Wheat was grown in 5 ml pipette tips for 10 days prior to labeling with 14C-labeled glycine. In a second experiment, uptake of amino acid-N relative to nitrate and ammonium was tested in three pre-1940 wheat varieties (Arco, Idaed, and Red Fife), three modern varieties (Alpowa, Madsen, and Zak), and one perennial wheat variety (unreleased). Glycine-N was detected in all shoots (with the exception of the lowest soil concentration) and increased with increasing soil concentration. There were few differences in uptake between individual varieties tested but seedlings of modern varieties were more efficient at capturing organic N than classic varieties. Glycine-N constituted between 3.9% and 8.1% of total N uptake over 24 h and constituted a significantly greater proportion of total N in perennial wheat than annual wheat varieties. These results show that there may be sufficient varietal differences in organic N uptake in wheat to warrant selection for this trait in breeding programs targeted to improving N use efficiency. The objective of a wine study was to determine if perceptible sensory differences existed between biodynamically and organically grown Merlot wines. Wine grapes were raised biodynamically or organically on a commercial vineyard with wines produced from 2001 to 2004. Sensory difference testing was performed to evaluate possible differences between the two wines within each vintage. Results of the triangle tests only showed a notable difference (p < 0.1) between the 2004 biodynamically and organically grown wines. Results of the directional paired difference test showed that the 2003 biodynamically grown wine was higher in musty/earthy aroma (p < 0.05) and bitterness (p < 0.1). However, the 2003 organically grown wine was preferred (p < 0.1). The 2004 organically grown wine was higher in musty/earthy aroma and flavor (p < 0.05), astringency and bitterness (p < 0.1), and had a longer finish (p < 0.05) compared to the same vintage biodynamically grown wine. Results indicate perceptible sensory differences between the 2003 and 2004 biodynamically and organically grown wines. I co-authored the 10th edition of my textbook titled "Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Future". The 659-page textbook provides comprehensive coverage of a variety of local, regional, national, and global resource, environmental, and agricultural issues, from population growth to wetlands to sustainable agriculture to soil conservation to pesticides. College students use the text in introductory natural resource conservation and management classes in the United States and Canada. PARTICIPANTS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
From my research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. More specifically, experience gained from my research will contribute to improvements in the production practices of organic and integrated growers and in the ability of conventional growers to convert to organic production methods or adopt integrated management approaches. My research will also benefit no-till and biodynamic growers. The comprehensive data sets provided by my on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from my studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from my research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, at meetings with growers and agricultural consultants, during field days, and in farm magazines. Results will also be disseminated through talks I give locally, regionally, nationally, and internationally and via journalists and reporters in the press (newspapers, radio and television programs, and websites). Benefits from this project will contribute to enhanced sustainability of crop production systems in Washington State, the Pacific Northwest, the United States, and beyond.

Publications

• Reeve, J., J.L.Smith, L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, and J.P.Reganold. 2009. Glycine, nitrate and ammonium uptake by classic and modern wheat varieties in a short-term microcosm study. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 45:723-732.
• Chiras, D.D., and J.P.Reganold. 2009. Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Future, 10th ed.. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Prentice Hall. 659 pp.
• Ross, C., K.M.Weller, R.Blue, and J.P.Reganold. 2009. Difference testing of Merlot produced from biodynamically and organically grown wine grapes. Journal of wine research 2:85-94.

Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In a paper in Scientific American, the potential of no-till farming was examined as a sustainable approach to agriculture. Evidence is growing that amino acids can be an important source of plant N in nutrient limited natural ecosystems, but relatively little is known about the effect of agricultural management on soil amino acid pools and turnover. Organic management in particular relies on slow release organic inputs as fertilizer which could result in greater pools of soil amino acids available for plant uptake. Moreover, we know little about potential differences in amino acid uptake ability within plant families and whether this ability may have been lost during domestication. We measured the effect of fine- versus coarse-textured soil and organic versus conventional management on free amino acids and proteolytic activity in the field. Secondly, we conducted greenhouse experiments to determine the ability of domestic and wild strawberry to utilize amino acid-N. Fine-textured and organically managed soils contained significantly higher total C and N than coarse-textured and conventionally managed soils. There were no significant differences in free amino acids or protease activity by texture or management. Amino acid turnover was calculated at 0.7 to 1.5 h. Two wild species of strawberry, Fragaria virginiana and F. chiloensis, took up significantly more 14C labeled glycine than the domesticated species, F. fragaria. More research is needed to determine whether strawberry cultivars could be selected or bred for their ability to capture amino acid N, thus improving N-use efficiency in farming systems relying on the breakdown of organic matter as N source. Biologically based weed control strategies are needed in organic and low-input systems. One promising practice is the application of Brassicaceous seed meal (BSM) residue, a byproduct of biodiesel production. When applied as a soil amendment, BSM residue has exhibited potential bioherbicide activity. In this study, tree fruit orchard soils were treated with various BSMs and the impact of Pythium on weed suppression was examined in field and greenhouse studies. Although weed control obtained in response to Brassicaceous residue amendments has been repeatedly attributed solely to release of allelopathic phytochemicals, multiple lines of evidence acquired in these studies indicate the involvement of a microbiological component. Reduced weed emergence and increased weed seedling mortality were not related to BSM glucosinolate content but were correlated with significant increases in resident populations of Pythium spp. in three different orchard soils. Seed meal of Brassica juncea did not amplify resident Pythium populations and did not suppress weed emergence. Application of Glycine max SM did stimulate Pythium spp. populations and likewise suppressed weed emergence. Application of a mefenoxam drench to Pythium-enriched soil significantly reduced weed suppression. These studies indicate that a microbial mechanism is involved in SM-induced weed suppression and that selective enhancement of resident pathogenic Pythium spp. can be utilized for the purpose of weed control. PARTICIPANTS: New participants on the project include Drs. Lori Hoagland, Jeff Smith, and Frank Peryea. TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
From my research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. The comprehensive data sets provided by my on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from my studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from my research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, at meetings with growers and agricultural consultants, during field days, and in farm magazines.

Publications

• Hoagland, L.A., L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, D.M.Granatstein, M.Mazzola, J.L.Smith, F.Peryea, and J.P.Reganold. 2008. Orchard floor management effects on nitrogen fertility and biological soil quality in a newly established organic apple orcha. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 45:11-18. http://cropandsoil.oregonstate.edu/wera103/2007_WNMC_Proceedings
• Reeve, J., J.L.Smith, L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, and J.P.Reganold. 2008. Soil-based cycling and differential uptake of amino acids by three species of strawberry (Fragaria spp.) plants. Soil Biology & Biochemistry. 40:2547-2552.
• Hoagland, L.A., L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, J.P.Reganold, and M.Mazzola. 2008. Role of native soil biology in Brassicaceae seed meal induced weed suppression. Soil Biology & Biochemistry. 40:1689-1697.
• Huggins, D.R., and J.P.Reganold. 2008. No-till: The quiet revolution. Scientific American. 299(July):70-77.
• Huggins, D.R., and J.P.Reganold. 2008. No-till farming: Justifiable herbicide. Scientific American. 299(November):12.
• Hoagland, L.A., L.A.Carpenter-Boggs, D.M.Granatstein, M.Mazzola, F.Peryea, J.L.Smith, and J.P.Reganold. 2008. Nutrient cycling and partitioning under alternative organic orchard. Western Nutrient Mangement Conference. Western Nutrient Management Conference. 2007. Salt Lake City, UT.

Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
In a paper in Scientific American, the potential of perennial grain agriculture is examined in light of today's conventional agriculture. which generally produces high yields but quashes natural biodiversity and ecosystems. Meanwhile the population will balloon to between eight and 10 billion people in the coming decades, requiring that more acres be cultivated. Replacing single-season crops with perennials, like wheat, rice, and corn, would create large root systems capable of preserving the soil and would allow cultivation in areas currently considered marginal. The challenge is monumental, but if plant scientists succeed (and they could with perennial wheat in the next 25 years), the achievement would rival humanity's original domestication of food crops over the past 10 millennia and be just as revolutionary. Organic orchard systems are a significant and growing component of Washington State agriculture, yet sustainable methods of nitrogen (N) fertility and weed management remain a challenge. Nutrient supply is dependent on decomposition and mineralization of organic matter, yet intensive cultivation commonly used to control weeds can disrupt biological processes and cause loss of organic matter. To address the often-competing goals of organic fertility and weed control, a number of alternative orchard floor management strategies were implemented and evaluated for their impact on N cycling, soil quality, and tree health in a newly established orchard. The standard practice of weed control using extensive tillage resulted in trees with good growth and acceptable levels of leaf N and most other essential nutrients, but, soil quality was in decline and may negatively impact long-term nutrient dynamics. Maintenance of a living cover understory resulted in greater N retention and availability, and rapid soil quality improvement, yet it severely competed with young trees, resulting in reduced tree growth. Covering the understory with wood chip mulch enhanced soil moisture and resulted in adequate tree growth, but it also facilitated N loss and correspondingly resulted in low tree leaf N. Application of a clove oil herbicide resulted in lower leaf N and tree growth in comparison to cultivated treatments and did not positively impact soil quality parameters. In contrast, Brassicaceae seedmeal (BSM) applications enhanced N availability and soil faunal biomass, yet leaf N did not reach acceptable levels and many of the other essential nutrients were lowest in this treatment. Tree leaf chlorosis was observed following an early season BSM application and may have been the result of reduced soil iron availability. None of the treatments applied produced an ideal combination of weed control, maximum tree growth, adequate leaf nutrients, and improved soil quality. Rather, soil quality improvements tended to compete with tree performance.

Impacts
From our research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. The comprehensive data sets provided by our on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from our studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from our research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, at meetings with growers and agricultural consultants, during field days, and in farm magazines. Other scientists as well as undergraduate and graduate students conducting related research work of their own are using our research sites at the Palouse Conservation Farm outside Pullman, WA, at McNab Ranch near Ukiah, CA, and on the organic and conventional strawberry farms in the Watsonville area, CA.

Publications

• Glover, J.D., C.M.Cox, and J.P.Reganold. 2007. Future farming: A return to roots?.. Scientific American. 297(2):82-89.

Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06

Outputs
It is an historically opportune time to review organic agriculture in a book as my colleagues and I have done in "Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective". Alongside the burgeoning production and trade in organic produce, increased interaction between researchers and organic producers has led to comparable growth in the production of organic knowledge. For example, new research centers have been established in many countries and there is increasing support from private and government funding agencies for organic-specific research. Growing numbers of peer-reviewed journals have been publishing organic agriculture focused research. These activities have created a considerable body of knowledge on organic agriculture. There is now sufficient, robust information to begin reviewing the strengths and weaknesses, assessing the extent to which its claims are validated and identifying ways to improve the sustainability and productivity of organic agriculture. Our book gathers together a broad range of experts with direct experience with organic farming over many years. Authors from 13 countries in several continents have contributed their knowledge to the book, making it more than just another Eurocentric perspective on organic agriculture. Our book describes and critically reviews key aspects of organic agriculture, such as soil fertility management, plant and animal production, social and environmental issues, as well as training and research; it maintains a global perspective by drawing on a multinational team of authors and referring to the widest available data in each section; it combines in one volume the insights of international experts who have direct experience with the organic movement, from on-farm work and teaching to marketing and rural appraisal; and it provides a unique and timely science-based resource for researchers, teachers, extensionists, students, primary producers and others around the world. There are five main sections to the book. The first section provides an introduction to the organic movement generally followed by reviews of key agricultural production issues, such as managing soils, plants, and livestock and breeding plants and animals for organic farming systems. The second section deals with overarching regulatory and management concerns, including developing effective and verifiable organic standards and certification processes as well as economic and marketing considerations. Section three contains a number of chapters addressing the external or off-farm issues, topics that are especially relevant "beyond the farm gate". The environmental and social impacts of organic farming are reviewed and differences in food quality between farming systems are also discussed in detail. The fourth section deals with topics related to developing a knowledge base and building human capacity for organic agriculture. The key themes in this section are research, education, extension, and training. The final section provides a summary of the key issues and challenges raised in the book.

Impacts
From my research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. The comprehensive data sets provided by my on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from my studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from my research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, at meetings with growers and agricultural consultants, during field days, and in farm magazines. Other scientists as well as undergraduate and graduate students conducting related research work of their own are using my research sites at the Palouse Conservation Farm outside Pullman, WA, at Enterprise Orchards in Zillah, WA, at McNab Ranch near Ukiah, CA, and on the organic and conventional strawberry farms in the Watsonville area, CA.

Publications

• Kristiansen, P., A.Taji, and J.P.Reganold. 2006. Organic agriculture: opportunities and challenges. Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective. Collingwood, Victoria, Australia. CSIRO Publishing. 421-441.
• Peck, G., P.K.Andrews, J.P.Reganold, and J.K.Fellman. 2006. Apple orchard productivity and fruit quality under organic, conventional, and integrated management.. HortScience : A Publication of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 41(1):99-107.
• Kristiansen, P., A.Taji, and J.P.Reganold. 2006. Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective. Collingwood, Victoria, Australia. CSIRO Publishing.
• Kramer, S.B., J.P.Reganold, J.D.Glover, B.Bohannan, and H.A.Mooney. 2006. Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103:4522-4527.

Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05

Outputs
Selecting varieties well adapted to competing for organic nitrogen could be an important means of maximizing productivity in organic, integrated, and low input agricultural systems as plants gain more effective access to a wider pool of available nutrients in any given time. Plants take up nitrogen principally in the form of nitrate and ammonium; however, evidence is growing that they can also utilize organic nitrogen in the form of amino acids and soluble proteins. We are conducting research to determine whether wheat grown in soil fertilized with organic N utilizes more organic N directly than wheat grown with inorganic N. We are also testing for differences in uptake of amino acids between pre-1930s varieties and modern varieties of wheat to determine whether this trait has been selected for or against by breeding under high inorganic N input. Preliminary trials using 14C labeled glycine were conducted to determine effects on uptake of wheat seedlings (vars Madson and Arco) grown in Hoagland solution, 10% Hoagland solution, 100 mM glycine or water and to determine uptake concentration curves. Uptake ranged from 2.180 to 1.189 ug glycine /mg root and 0.496 to 0.091 ug glycine / mg shoot. Uptake by roots was highest in seedlings grown in water, but highest in shoots when grown in 10% Hoaglands. Madson contained higher levels than Arco in shoots only. Uptake was linear for roots between 0.06 and 10 mM glycine but varied highly in shoots. In a book chapter on managing vineyard soil organic matter with cover crops, cover crops protect vineyard soil from erosion, regulate vine growth, and provide habitat for beneficial arthropods. Additionally, cover crops augment soil organic matter (SOM), which can improve soil physical, biological, and chemical conditions in the vineyard rooting zone. Cover-crop roots create macropores either by displacing soil during taproot formation (mustards), or granulation of soil particles into aggregates (sod-forming species). During cover-crop decomposition into stable humates, fungi and bacteria further aggregate soil particles by secreting organic substances. In the process, changes in soil structure occur as macropores and aggregation improve infiltration, water storage, and soil gas exchange. In warm, sunny, dry climates, frequent tillage and high soil temperatures cause net losses of SOM, even when planting cover crops annually. Organic matter may accumulate more rapidly under sod culture. Cover-crop composition and vineyard floor management can influence the fate of soil carbon. Because of its high cation exchange capacity per unit weight, increases in SOM can significantly improve soil fertility. Large amounts of soil nitrogen can be added by leguminous cover crops. As SOM inceases, nutrient retention and nitrogen availability increases. Microbial biomass, activity, and community composition respond to changes in soil management, which can affect the rate at which SOM accumulates. Changes in microbial composition and soil fauna may confer improvements in soil quality.

Impacts
From our research studies and presentations on farming systems, growers thinking of converting to more sustainable practices or to alternative farming systems will have many years of soils, crop, financial, and environmental data to help them make their decisions. The comprehensive data sets provided by all of our on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from these studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from our research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, and to growers and agricultural consultants at meetings, during field days, and in industry publications. Our research sites at the Palouse Conservation Farm outside Pullman, WA, at Enterprise Orchards in Zillah, WA, at McNab Ranch near Ukiah, CA, and on the organic and conventional strawberry farms in the Watsonville area, CA, are being studied by other scientists as well as undergraduate and graduate students to conduct related research work of their own.

Publications

• McGourty, G.T. and J.P. Reganold. 2005. Managing vineyard soil organic matter with cover crops. In P. Christensen and D. Smart (eds) Soil Environment and Vine Mineral Nutrition. American Society for Enology and Viticulture, Davis, CA. pp. 145-151.
• Peck, G. M., C. Richter, P. K. Andrews, and J. P. Reganold. 2005. Internationalization of the organic fruit market: The case of Washington State organic apple exports to the European Union. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 20:101-112.
• Reeve, J.R., J.L. Smith, L. Carpenter-Boggs, and J.P. Reganold. 2005. Plant uptake of soluble organic molecules as N source In U. Kopke, U. Niggli, D. Neuhoff, P. Cornish, W. Lockeretz, and H. Willer (eds.) Researching Sustainable Systems. Proceedings of the First Scientific Conference of the International Society of Organic Agriculture Research (ISOFAR), Institute of Organic Agriculture, Bonn, Germany. pp. 44-47.
• Reeve, J.R., L. Carpenter-Boggs, J.P. Reganold, A.L. York, G. McGourty, and L.P. McCloskey. 2005. Soil and winegrape quality in biodynamically and organically managed vineyards. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 56:367-376

Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04

Outputs
A long-term, replicated, 4.9-ha study was initiated in 1996 on a commercial Merlot vineyard near Ukiah, CA, to investigate the effects of the biodynamic preparations on soil and winegrape quality. The study consisted of two treatments, biodynamic and organic (the control), each replicated four times in a randomized, complete block design. All management practices were the same in all plots, except for the addition of the preparations to the biodynamic treatment. No differences were found in soil quality in the first six years. Nutrient analyses of leaf tissue, clusters per vine, yield per vine, cluster weight, and berry weight showed no differences. Although average pruning weights for both treatments in 2001-2003 fell within the optimal range of 0.3 to 0.6 kg/m for producing high quality winegrapes, ratios of yield to pruning weight were significantly different and indicated that the biodynamic treatment had ideal vine balance for producing high-quality winegrapes and that the control vines were slightly over-cropped. Biodynamically treated winegrapes had significantly higher (p < 0.05) tannins in 2002 and Brix in 2003. In addition, biodynamic winegrapes contained higher (p < 0.10) tannins, total phenols, and total anthocyanins in 2003. Biodynamic preparations may affect winegrape canopy and chemistry but were not shown to affect the soil parameters or tissue nutrients measured in this study. In an agronomy encyclopedia, I published a chapter on organic agriculture, discussing its potential sustainability, practices, history, extent, and certification. The 9th edition of my textbook, Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Future, was published. The textbook provides comprehensive coverage of a variety of local, regional, national, and global resource, environmental, and agricultural issues from population growth to wetlands to sustainable agriculture to soil conservation to pesticides. In the fall 2001, D. Huggins (the lead PI) and I began the Palouse Agroecosystem Research Trials project at the USDA Conservation Farm outside of Pullman. The on-going trials include a perennial-based grain treatment, a low disturbance organic annual grain treatment, two different no-till annual grain treatments, and a Conservation Reserve Program planting of native prairie grasses. The long-term goals of this project are twofold: 1) to determine the effects of these five systems on soil quality, crop quality, pest and disease interactions, and environmental quality; and 2) to provide detailed information on a range of management options to growers. In the summer 2004, P. K. Andrews, L. Carpenter-Boggs, and I (the lead PI) began a new project measuring soil and fruit quality of commercial organic and conventional farms over a two-year period. Specific objectives include quantifying the following parameters of organic and conventional strawberry farms: (1) organic nitrogen plant uptake; (2) soil quality; (3) quality, storage, processing potential, and sensory evaluation of strawberries; and (4) mineral nutrients, antioxidant activity, and phytonutrient contents of strawberries.

Impacts
From our research studies and presentations on the vineyards at McNab Ranch, winegrape growers and winemakers thinking of converting to biodynamic winegrape production will have six years of soils and winegrape data to help them make their decisions. The comprehensive data sets provided by all on-farm studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from the studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from our research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, and to growers and agricultural consultants at meetings, during field days, and in industry publications. Research sites at the Palouse Conservation Farm outside Pullman, WA, at Enterprise Orchards in Zillah, WA, and at McNab Ranch near Ukiah, CA, are being studied by other scientists as well as undergraduate and graduate students.

Publications

• Andrews, P.K. and J.P. Reganold. 2004. Research networking to evaluate the sustainability of horticultural production systems. Acta Horticulturae. 638:359-368.
• Reganold, J. P. 2004. Organic agriculture as a form of sustainable agriculture. In R. M. Goodman (ed) Encyclopedia of Plant and Crop Science. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY. pp. 846-849.

Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03

Outputs
Chapters in the co-authored textbook, Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Future (8th edition), were revised and submitted to the publisher, Prentice Hall, for review. Remaining chapters will be submitted in early 2004. The textbook was written for the introductory resource conservation course at the college level. The book is designed to provide comprehensive coverage of a variety of local, regional, national, and global resource, environmental, and agricultural issues from population growth to wetlands to sustainable agriculture to soil conservation to pesticides. In a paper given at a short course for growers and scientists interested in organic viticulture, I discussed soils and their management in organic viticulture. The French term Terroir, that wine is an expression of the environment in which its grapes are grown, illustrates the importance that soils play in producing good wines. Maintaining healthy soil is the foundation of organic viticulture. A detailed soil survey of the vineyard should be conducted and can indicate what varieties to plant, what soil problems exist, and how much irrigation water is necessary. Soil requirements for growing winegrapes are adequate nutrients, satisfactory pH (5.5-8.0), sufficient rooting depth, easy exchange of gases, good drainage, adequate water storage, and favorable soil temperature. Major soil properties affecting these requirements are texture, structure, organic matter, pH, fertility, and depth. Soil management goals in organic viticulture are to utilize as much of the soil profile as possible, to maintain adequate, not excessive, fertility, to build well-structured soils, to maintain organic matter content and soil pH, to monitor soil moisture to avoid excess, to stop erosion, and to promote diversity. Soil management tools in organic viticulture are compost, cover crops, lime and gypsum, naturally occurring nutrients and pesticides, tillage, mowing, grazing, and flaming. In an agronomy encyclopedia, I was invited to publish a section on organic agriculture. Organic agriculture and sustainability, organic agricultural practices, the history and extent of organic agriculture, and organic certification were discussed.

Impacts
The Natural Resource Conservation textbook may be read by as many as 15,000 college students in the next three years. The USDA Palouse Conservation Farm, where one of the organic farming systems projects is located, is the site of frequent field days aimed at informing Pacific Northwest growers of innovative agricultural research and transferring successfully trialed practices directly to them. Research sites at the Palouse Conservation Farm, Enterprise Orchards in Zillah, WA, and McNab Ranch near Ukiah, CA, are being studied by other scientists as well as undergraduate and graduate students to conduct related research work.

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02

Outputs
The revision of my textbook, "Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Future", was written for the introductory resource conservation course at the college level. The book, 22 chapters and 640 pages in length, is designed to provide comprehensive coverage of a variety of local, regional, national, and global resource, environmental, and agricultural issues from population growth to wetlands to sustainable agriculture to soil conservation to pesticides. My numerous publications in refereed journals, books, proceedings, abstracts, and poster papers have shown that alternative farming systems, such as organic, integrated, no-till, and perennial polyculture, have tremendous promise in improving sustainability factors: soil quality, crop quality, profitability, and environmental quality. For example, after nine years of organic, conventional, and integrated apple production management, soil quality has improved significantly in the organic and integrated systems but not in the conventional system.

Impacts
This 'Natural Resource Conservation' textbook may be read by as many as 15,000 college students in the next three years. It will help educate them about sustainable agriculture and natural resource management. My other publications, such as refereed journal and book articles, evaluate the sustainability of alternative farming systems, for which consumers and growers are asking. The comprehensive data sets provided by my studies are needed to understand the complex interactions of agroecosystem components and processes. Information from my studies will expand economic opportunities for farmers, promote reduced use of agrochemicals, and improve the effects of farming on the environment. Results from my research are already being, and will continue to be, disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, at scientific meetings, through extension publications, and to growers and agricultural consultants at meetings, during field days, and in industry publications. For example, the USDA's Palouse Conservation Farm, where one of my farming systems projects is located, is the site of frequent field days aimed at informing Pacific Northwest growers of innovative agricultural research and transferring successfully trialed practices directly to them. My research sites at the Conservation Farm, at Enterprise Orchards in Zillah, WA, and at McNab Ranch near Ukiah, CA, are being studied by other scientists as well as undergraduate and graduate students to conduct related research work of their own.

Publications

• Andrews, P.K., J.P. Reganold, H.R. Hinman, and J.D. Glover. 2002. Horticultural performance, soil quality, and orchard profitability of organic, integrated, and conventional apple production systems. http://www.goodfruit.com/subscriber/research/andrews/andrews.html
• Andrews, P.K., J.P. Reganold, H.R. Hinman, and J.D. Glover. 2002. Three apple production systems compared. GOOD FRUIT GROWER, Vol. 53, No. 9, p. 28 (May 1, 2002).
• Carpenter-Boggs, L., J. Reeve, and J. P. Reganold. 2002. Biodynamic compost preparations speed composting and increase nitrogen. In C. Miles, D. Granatstein, and A. Stone (eds) Cultivating Biological Connections, Proceedings of the Northwest Symposium on Organic and Biologically Intensive Farming: Advances in Research and Education, Yakima, WA. p. 2.
• Chiras, D. D., J. P. Reganold, and O. S. Owen. 2002. Natural Resource Conservation: Management for a Sustainable Future, 8th edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 640 pp.
• Glover, J., H. Hinman, J. Reganold, and P. Andrews. 2002. A cost and return analysis of conventional vs. integrated vs. organic apple production systems. Washington State University Research Bulletin XB1041, Pullman.
• Huggins, D.R., J.P. Reganold, and L. Carpenter-Boggs. 2002. Organic Agroecosystem Trials: Strategies for Low-Disturbance Dryland Cropping Systems. Northwest Symposium on Organic and Biologically Intensive Farming: Advances in Research and Education. November 8, 2002, Yakima, WA.
• Andrews, P.K. and J.P. Reganold. 2002. Research networking to evaluate the sustainability of horticultural production systems. On-Site Program XXVIth International Horticultural Congress and Exhibition, International Society for Horticultural Science, p. 292.
• Mazzola, M., P.K. Andrews, J.P. Reganold, and C. Andre Levesque. 2001. Frequency, virulence and metalaxyl sensitivity of Pythium spp. isolated from apple roots under conventional and organic production systems. Plant Disease 86: 669-675.
• Peck, G. M., J. D. Glover, P. K. Andrews, J. P. Reganold, and H. R. Hinman. 2002. Sustainability of three apple production systems: organic, conventional, and integrated. Past results, present research, and future objectives. In C. Miles, D. Granatstein, and A. Stone (eds) Cultivating Biological Connections, Proceedings of the Northwest Symposium on Organic and Biologically Intensive Farming: Advances in Research and Education, Yakima, WA. p. 7.
• Reeve, J.R., J.P. Reganold, D. Huggins, J. Glover, and L. Carpenter-Boggs. 2002. Agroecosystem Research Trials. Natural Systems Agriculture Fellows Workshop, July 21-27, Land Institute, Matfield Green, KS.
• Reganold, J. P. 2002 (January). Integrated or separate? Biodynamic, sustainable and organic farming practices. Unified Wine & Grape Symposium, Sacramento, CA.
• Reganold, J. P. 2002. Sustainability of organic, conventional, and integrated apple production systems. Ecological Farming Conference, Monterey, CA. p. 22.
• Reganold, J. P. 2002 (September). Is there room for pesticide-free foods? Western Regional Agricultural Health and Safety Conference., Coeur D'Alene, ID.
• Reganold, J. P. 2002 (November). Farming Systems Research. Northwest Symposium on Organic and Biologically Intensive Farming Conference, Yakima, WA.
• Reganold, J. P. 2002. Organic agriculture as a form of sustainable agriculture. In R. M. Goodman (ed) Encyclopedia of Plant and Crop Science. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY In press.