Progress 08/15/01 to 08/31/03
Outputs
1) The research suggests that changes in wood properties appear to be driven by hydraulic rather than mechanical needs of the growing tree. However, sapwood area in ponderosa pine does not appear to be determined by water transport needs, suggesting that the carbon budget for sapwood growth is relatively constant. 2) Time studies of three competing technologies for measuring forest stand areas showed that: a) the laser, digital compass and either of two studied digital data collectors was the most efficient, followed by the string-box method and GPS method. However, the overall effectiveness of the digital technologies was not always greater than more traditional methods. 3) Various alternatives to RTO and CTO devices for VOC control in conventional lumber drying operations were evaluated. Initial studies with the use of ionic liquids for pollution absorption showed that pinene absorption is the most critical factor in selecting the a target liquid. Using lower drying
temperatures was shown to significantly reduce HAP emissions with white fir and ponderosa pine. 4) The Analytic Hierarchy Process, developed for other fields, was shown to have great promise as decision support tool for harvest road layouts and management. The reliability of a digital elevation model with 9 meter resolution was found to be questionable for road grade and landscape slope estimates. A model with finer resolution should be explored in future work. 5) Experimental measurements of water flow showed that peak flow in road ditches preceded that in streams, especially where the ditch system intercepted subsurface runoff from the hill slope. Traditional topographic indicators could not predict that increase. Future work with stable isotopes is suggested by the study results. 6) Two software packages, ATHENA and SimaPro, were evaluated to document their effectiveness at modeling the various life cycle costs of wood from the forest through residential construction and ultimate
disposal. The research showed that the concurrent use of both programs provides the best results for this problem given the inherent complementary strenghts and weaknesses of each. Two case studies were conducted to demonstrate effectiveness. Future work should focus on sensitivity studies of life cycle inventory processing models for various wood composite materials.
Impacts
1) A new hypothesis related to tree hydraulic needs offers an explanation for variation in wood properties across the radius that may give forest managers new understanding of silvicultural effects. 2) Land managers can now make informed decisions about cost and effectiveness of competing technologies for stand measurements. 3) Mill managers can actively influence VOC emissions and energy consumption through moisture sorting and lowering drying temperature. A new approach to VOC absorption offers promise for future equipment developers. 4) Use of an Analytical Hierarchy Process for harvest road layout and management will reduce actual and environmental costs of harvest design and implementation. A 9-m digital elevation model should not be used to provide grade and slope estimates. 5) New understanding of the influence of road networks on watershed hydrology will guide road network designers and land managers. 6) The environmental burdens of the use of wood in
residential construction can be effectively assessed and will guide selection of appropriate materials and public policy choices.
Publications
- Panella, N., M.C. Dolan, J.J. Karchesy, Y. Xiong, J. Peralta-Cruz, M. Khasawneh, J.A. Montenieri and G.O. Maupin. 2003. Use of novel compounds for pest control: Insecticidal and acaricidal activity of essential oil components from heartwood of Alaska yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). Journal of Medical Entomology. (Submitted).
- Panella, N.A. and J.J. Karchesy. 2003. Evaluation of larvicidal and adulticidal activity of plant extracts from trees and shrubs of the Pacific Northwest United States against Aedes egypti and Culex pipiens mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. (In Press).
- Pruyn, M.L., M.E. Harmon and B.L. Gartner. 2003. Stem repiratory potential in six softwood and four hardwood tree species in the central Cascades of Oregon. Oecologia 137:10-21.
- Reeb, J.E. 2003. Analyzing manufacturing changes using discrete event simulation. p. 26 In: Biographies and Abstracts of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Forest Products Society, June 22-25, Bellevue, WA.
- Reeb, J.E. 2003. Hands-on method of teaching linear programming. p. 42 In: Biographies and Abstracts of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Forest Products Society, June 22-25, Bellevue, WA.
- Reeb, J.E. 2003. Simulating an extra grader in a sawmill. Forest Products Journal 53(11/12):81-84.
- Reeb, J.E. 2003. Taking into account different learning modalities when teaching adults complex subject matter: An example for improving manufacturing. p. 5 In: Biographies and Abstracts of the 6th Extension Working Party Symposium: Building Capacity Through Extension Best Practices, International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO), September 28-October 3, Troutdale, OR.
- Reeb, J.E. 2003. Taking into account different learning modalities when teaching adults complex subject matter: An example for improving manufacturing. Proceedings of the 6th Extension Working Party Symposium: Building Capacity Through Extension Best Practices, International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO), September 28-October 3, Troutdale, OR.
- Reeb, J.E. 2003. Using discrete event simulation to measure impact of changing from traditional manufacturing to cell manufacturing in a value-added wood processing facility. Chapter 25: Manufacturing Management. Proceedings of PICMET '03, Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Technology, July 20-24, Portland, OR. 34 p.
- Reeb, J.E. 2003. Using discrete event simulation to measure impact of changing from traditional manufacturing to cell manufacturing in a value-added wood processing facility. p. 145 In: Technology Management for Reshaping the World Conference Bulletin. Abstract. Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Technology, July 20-24, Portland, OR.
- Reeb, J.E. and S. Leavengood. 2003. Introduction and overview for simulating a manufacturing system. Ext. Serv. EM 8837-E, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 11 p.
- Singleton, R., D.S. DeBell, D.D. Marshall and B.L. Gartner. 2003. Eccentricity and fluting in young-growth western hemlock in Oregon. Western Journal of Forestry 18:1-8.
- Solmie, D., L. Kellogg, J. Kiser and M.G. Wing. 2003. Strategies to complete corridor layout. In: Proceedings of the Council of Forest Engineering Annual Meeting, Septmeber 7-10, University of Maine, Orono.
- Solmie, D., L. Kellogg, M.G. Wing and J. Kiser. 2003. Comparison of techniques for measuring forested areas. In: Proceedings of the Precision Forestry Symposium, June 15-18, University of Washington, Seattle.
- Taylor, A.M., B.L. Gartner and J.J. Morrell. 2003. Co-incident variations in growth rate and heartwood extractive concentration in Douglas-fir. Forest Ecology and Management 186:257-260.
- Wing, M.G., D. Solmie and L. Kellogg. 2003. Comparison of digital measurement devices for forestry applications. Journal of Forestry. (In Press).
- Toman, E.M. and A.E. Skaugset. 2003. The magnitude and timing of runoff from forest roads relative to stream flow at live stream crossing culverts in western Oregon. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Council on Forest Engineering, September 7-10, Bar Harbor, ME.
- Wilson, J. 2003. Case study: Environmental assessment of an emission control device. Abstract. Forest Products Society Annual Meeting, June 20, Bellevue, WA.
- Wilson, J. 2003. Life cycle analysis and carbon sequestration in solid wood products. In: Proceedings for Accounting for Carbon: Life Cycle of Carbon and the Forest Products Industry, Joachim Forum, October 23, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry.
- Wing, M.G., J. Sessions and E. Coulter. 2003. Preliminary investigation of digital elevation model resolution for transportation routing in forested landscapes. In: Proceeding of the Second International Precision Forestry Symposium, June 15-18, Seattle, WA.
- Dancer, E. 2003. Life Cycle Inventory or Laminated Veneer Lumber and Composite I-Joist Manufacturing. Thesis. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis.
- DeVallance, D.B. 2003. Influence of veneer roughness, lathe check, and annual ring characteristics on glue-bond performance of Douglas-fir plywood. M.S. Thesis. Oregon State University, Corvallis.
- Khasawneh, M.A. 2003. Natural and semi-synthetic compounds with biocidal activity against arthropods of public health important. Ph.D. Thesis. Oregon State University, Corvallis.
- Solmie, D.K. 2003. Comparing Field Measurement Strategies for Operational Planning and Layout. M.F. Paper. Department of Forest Engineering, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. 75 p.
- Swartley, B.D. 2002. Juniper utilization: Issues of chemistry and management. M.S. Thesis. Oregon State University, Corvallis.
- Bouffier, L.A., B.L. Gartner and J.-C. Domec. 2003. Wood density and hydraulic properties of ponderosa pine from the Willamette Valley vs. the Cascade Mountains. Wood and Fiber Science 35:217-233.
- Coulter, E. and J. Sessions. 2003. Use of the analytic hierarchy process to compare disparate data and set priorities. In: Proceedings of the Second International Precision Forestry Symposium, June 15-18, Seattle, WA.
- Coulter, E., J. Sessions and M.G. Wing. 2003. An exploration of the analytic hierarchy process and its potential for use in forest engineering. In: Proceedings of the 26th Meeting of the Council of Forest Engineering, September 7-10, Bar Harbor, ME.
- Domec, J.C. and B.L. Gartner. 2003. Relationship between growth rates and xylem hydraulic characteristics in young, mature, and old-growth ponderosa pine trees. Plant, Cell and Environment 26:471-483.
- Freitag, C.M., K. Li and J.J. Morrell. 2003. Potential for the use of hydroxylamine derivatives as wood preservatives. Forest Products Journal 53(7/8):77-79.
- Funck, J.W., Y. Zhong, D.A. Butler, C.C. Brunner and J.B. Forrer. 2003. Image segmentation algorithms applied to wood defect detection. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 41:157-179.
- Gartner, B.L. J. Roy and R. Huc. 2003. Effect of tension wood on specific conductivity and vulnerability to embolism of Quercus ilex seedlings grown at two atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Tree Physiology 23:387-395.
- Geng, X. and K. Li. 2002. Degradation of non-phenolic lignin by the white-rot fungus Pycnoporus cinnabarinus. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 60(3):342-346.
- Geng, X., K. Li and F. Xu. 2003. Investigation of hydroxamic acids as laccase-mediators for pulp bleaching. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. (In Press).
- Langlois, J., R. Gupta and T.H. Miller. 2004. Effects of reference displacement and damage accumulation in wood shear walls. Journal of Structural Engineering 130(3).
- Lebeda, D., R. Gupta, D. Rosowsky and D. Dolan. 2003. The effect of hold-down misplacement on the strength and stiffness of wood shear walls. Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction. (In Press).
- Li, K. 2003. The role of enzymes and mediators in lignocellulose degradation. p. 196-209 In: Wood Deterioration and Preservation, Advances in our Changing World. B. Goodell, D. Nicholas and T. Schultz, eds. ACS Symposium Series 845. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
- Milota, M.R. 2003. HAP and VOC emissions from white fir lumber dried at high and conventional temperatures. Forest Products Journal 53(3):60-64.
- Milota, M.R. 2003. Temperature and humidity effects on emissions of volatile organic compounds from ponderosa pine lumber. Drying Technology 21(1):165-173.
- Morrell, J.J., A. Paillard, D. Gnoblei, B.L. Gartner, M.R. Milota and R.G. Rhatigan. 2003. Variations in longitudinal permeability of coastal western hemlock. Wood and Fiber Science 35:397-400.
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Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02
Outputs
1) A strong positive correlation was found between sapwood permeability and height growth in ponderosa pine, but there was no correlation for radial growth. This demonstrates that wood properties are related to growth rate in ways that make sense physiologically. In Douglas-fir, sapwood width was not causally related to leaf area above it, and short-term changes in growth rate appear to change the durability of heartwood. 2) GPS, digital total station and string box were added to the study of precision forestry techniques. Four different surveying techniques were used with an uneven-aged forest plan and data are now being analyzed. In a parallel study of twenty skyline corridors on steep ground, similar measurements (except for GPS, which was not effective) were taken and the results will be presented at an upcoming conference. 3) Various alternatives to RTO and CTO devices for VOC control in conventional lumber drying operations were evaluated with pros and cons of
each identified. A key to effective control is reduced energy consumption through control of moisture variability and improved drying efficiency. A new idea for control using ionic liquids was proposed for further study. 4) A new model of transportation networks in landslide-prone terrain was able to correctly predict road failure or non-failure 71% of the time. The Analytic Hierarchy Process, developed for other fields, is now being tested for management of existing road networks, and shows great promise for advancing decision support systems for forested road networks. 5) In a study of road connectivity on watershed hydrology, 98 new culverts on the study watershed have been installed and fitted with instrumentation. Data collection for 2002-03 winter season is now underway and a thesis should soon ensue. 6) Updated and verified life-cycle inventory models were developed for producing plywood, laminated veneer lumber, I-joists, and glulam. These are now being employed in a larger
study of the environmental and economic burdens of using these products in typical residential house designs. A baseline cost has been established for producing each of the study products and will be made available to a national database in the near future.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Bouffier, L.A., B.L. Gartner and J.-C. Domec. 2003. Density and hydraulic properties of ponderosa pine trunk wood from the Cascade Mountains vs. the Willamette Valley. Wood and Fiber Science. (In press).
- Bowyer, J., D. Briggs, B. Lippke, J. Perez-Garcia and J. Wilson. 2002. Life Cycle Environmental Performance of Renewable Materials in the Context of Residential Building Construction. Consortium for Renewable Resources in Industrial Manufacturing. Printed by CINTRAFOR, College of Forest Resources, March 6, University of Washington, Seattle.
- Domec, J.-C. and B.L. Gartner. 2003. Relationship between growth rates and xylem hydraulic characteristics in young, mature, and old-growth ponderosa pine trees. Plant, Cell and Environment. (In press).
- Coulter, E.D., A. Skaugset, J. Coakley and J. Sessions. 2002. Sedimentation Risk from a Road Network in the Oregon Coast Range. In: Proceedings, 25th Meeting of the Council of Forest Engineering, June 16-20, Auburn, AL.
- Ellingson, K.S. 2002. Road surface runoff for the Oak Creek Watershed: The influence of hillslope and road characteristics. M.F. Project Report. Department of Forest Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 63 p.
- Pruyn, M.L. 2002. Patterns of stem respiration within tree, with age, and among species in Pacific Northwest trees. Ph.D. Thesis. Departments of Wood Science and Engineering and Forest Science. Oregon State University, Corvallis. 231 p.
- Sakimoto, E. 2002. Life-cycle inventory of plywood manufacturing in the Pacific Northwest and the Southeast United States. M.S. Thesis. Oregon State University, Corvallis.
- Gartner, B.L. 2002. Sapwood and inner bark quantities in relation to leaf area and wood density in Douglas-fir. IAWA Journal 23:267-285.
- Gartner, B. 2002. Wood quality research at OSU. p. 5-7 In: 2001 Annual Report. Willamette Valley Ponderosa Pine Conservation Association.
- Gartner, B.L., J.-C. Domec, R. Spicer and M. Pruyn. 2002. Patterns of water transport and xylem anatomy in Douglas-fir. p. 47-48 In: Proceedings, 3rd International Canopy Conference, June 23-29, Queensland Government and the Smithsonian Institution. Program and Abstract Book.
- Gartner, B.L., J. Roy and R. Huc. 2003. Effects of tension wood on specific conductivity and vulnerability to embolism of Quercus ilex seedlings at two levels of CO2. Tree Physiology. (In press).
- Milota, M.R. 2002. CORRIM Project Western Softwood Lumber. Updated Project Report to: Consortium for Renewable Resources in Industrial Manufacturing, October 16. 85 p.
- Milota, M.R. 2002. Drying emissions and environmental regulations. In: Quality Drying: The Key to Profitable Manufacturing, September 23-25, Forest Products Society, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. (In press).
- Milota, M.R. 2002. Factors affecting lumber kiln VOC emissions. p. 4.5-4.14 In: Proceedings of the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, West Coast Regional Meeting, September 25-26, Portland, OR.
- Milota, M.R. 2002. HAP and VOC emissions from white fir lumber dried at high and conventional temperatures. Forest Products Journal. (In press).
- Milota, M.R., C.D. West and I.D. Hartley. 2002. CORRIM Project Southeast Softwood Lumber. Project report to: Consortium for Renewable Resources in Industrial Manufacturing, November 16. 72 p.
- Morrell, J.J., A. Paillard, D. Gnoblei, B. Gartner, M.R. Milota and R.G. Rhatigan. 2002. Variations in permeability of coastal western hemlock. Forest Products Journal. (In press).
- Pruyn, M.L., B.L. Gartner and M.E. Harmon. 2002. Respiratory potential in sapwood of old versus young ponderosa pine trees in the Pacific Northwest. Tree Physiology 22:105-116.
- Pruyn, M.L., B.L. Gartner and M.E. Harmon. 2002. Why do tree species of varying sapwood thickness respire differently? p. 240 In: Abstracts, A Convocation: Understanding and Restoring Ecosystems. 87th Annual Meeting, Ecological Society of America, August 4-9, Tucson, AZ.
- Pruyn, M.L., B.L. Gartner and M.E. Harmon. 2002. Within-stem variation of respiration in Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir) trees. New Phytologist 154:359-372.
- Rhatigan, R.G., M.R. Milota, J.J. Morrell and M.R. Lavery. 2002. Effect of high temperature drying on permeability and treatment of western hemlock lumber. Forest Products Journal. (In press).
- Singleton, R., D.S. DeBell, D.D. Marshall and B.L. Gartner. 2003. Eccentricity and fluting in young-growth western hemlock. Western Journal of Forestry. (In press).
- Taylor, A.M., B.L. Gartner and J.J. Morrell. 2002. Heartwood formation and natural durability-a review. Wood and Fiber Science 34:587:611.
- Thiam, M., M.R. Milota and R.J. Leichti. 2002. Effect of high-temperature drying on bending and shear strength of western hemlock lumber. Forest Products Journal 52(4):64-68.
- Wilson, B.F. and B.L. Gartner. 2002. Effects of stem girdling in conifers on apical control of branches, growth allocation and air in wood. Tree Physiology 22:347-353.
- Wilson, J., M. Puettmann, E. Sakimoto and E. Dancer. 2002. Softwood Plywood-Pacific Northwest and Southeast. In: Life Cycle Environmental Performance of Renewable Materials in the Context of Residential Building Construction. Consortium for Renewable Resources in Industrial Manufacturing. Appendix D. Printed by CINTRAFOR, College of Forest Resources, March 6, University of Washington, Seattle.
- Domec, J.-C. 2002. Structure and hydraulic function of xylem in two tree species with contrasting amounts of sapwood, Pseudotsuga menziesii and Pinus ponderosa. Ph.D. Thesis. Departments of Wood Science and Engineering and Forest Science. Oregon State University, Corvallis. 204 p.
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Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01
Outputs
1) Outer sapwood of Douglas-fir was found to have much higher values than inner sapwood for most measured physiological measures such as water transport and respiration. This implies that large errors are introduced if data for outer sapwood are scaled to represent the whole sapwood area. Douglas-fir sapwood at the top of the tree (in the juvenile wood zone) can withstand higher negative water potentials than can the sapwood produced in the same year, but lower on the stem. 2) Field tests of a laser rangefinder and digital compass were conducted to provide baseline information for assessing the potential uses and disadvantages of the equipment in a set of realistic harvest planning activities. The results are quite promising. Field studies are planned to collect data on the time and cost involved in operational harvest planning (unit boundaries, landing and skid trail locations, skyline corridor and anchor locations, logging road locations, riparian and other special
management areas) with manual surveying and mapping approaches compared to the use of digital equipment (laser rangefinder, GPS, and GIS). 3) One publication comparing VOC emission levels obtained using the laboratory technique to those measured at a mill was completed. Overall, measurements made using the lab method compare favorably with those made at the mill. HAP emissions were found to triple when white fir lumber was dried at 240 degrees Fahrenheit compared to 180 degrees Fahrenheit. Additional work is needed to determine if this is true for other species. The quantity of HAP emissions from lumber kilns is not a concern for many producers; however, using lower temperatures may help facilities with other HAP sources on site comply with Title 3 of the Clean Air Act. 4) Initial research on improved transportation networks in landslide prone areas included developing a slope stability index and applying the index to characterize the stability of roads within the Elliott State Forest
using GIS and mapping techniques. Factors of safety were computed using a set of numerical failure criteria and the results showed that the Elliott road network is relatively susceptible to slope failure. The most failure prone road segments appear to be mid-slope roads in steep terrain. 5) Site preparations and measuring equipment installations for a study on the effect of road connectivity on forest hydrology were completed in time for data collection during the 2002 wet season. 6) Life cycle inventory (LCI) studies were conducted of the manufacturing of wood structural building materials-plywood, laminated veneer lumber, composite I-beams, glulam, and trusses. Survey data were collected of the various product manufacturers for the northwest and southeast regions of the U.S that produce 10-25% of the total production of each product in the region.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Bowyer, J., D. Briggs, L. Johnson, B. Kasal, B. Lippke, J. Meil, M. Milota, W. Trusty, C. West, J. Wilson and P. Winistorfer. 2001. CORRIM A Report of Progress and a Glimpse of the Future. Forest Products Journal 15(10):10-22. Feature article.
- Coulter, E.D., M.G. Wing and J. Sessions. 2001. Using spatial data to evaluate wood transportation alternatives in a roaded landscape. In: Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters Annual Meeting, September 13-17, Denver, CO.
- Domec, J.C. and B.L. Gartner. 2001. Carvitation and water storage capacity in bole xylem segments of mature and young Douglas-fir trees. Trees 15:204-214.
- Domec, J.C. and B.L. Gartner. 2002. Age and position-related changes in hydraulic vs. mechanical dysfunction of xylem: Inferring the design criteria for Douglas-fir wood structure. Tree Physiology 22:91-104.
- Gartner, B.L. 2002. Sapwood and inner bark quantities in relation to leaf area and wood density in 34-year old Douglas-fir. IAWA Journal. (In Press).
- Lavery, M. and M.R. Milota. 2001. Measurement of VOC emissions from ponderosa pine lumber using commercial and laboratory kilns. Drying Technology 19(9):2151-2175.
- Milota, M.R. 2001. Emissions from small-scale kilns, test considerations and comparison to large-scale kilns. p. 336-341 In: Proceedings of the 7th International IUFRO Wood Drying Conference, Group 5.04.06, July 9-13, Tsukuba, Japan.
- Milota, M.R. 2001. Organic emissions from lumber dry kilns, small- and large-scale. In: Proceedings of the TAPPI Environmental Conference, April 22-24, Atlanta, GA.
- Milota, M.R. 2001. VOC and HAP emissions from western species. p. 62-68 In: Proceedings of the Western Dry Kiln Association, May 6-8, Portland, OR.
- Milota, M.R. 2002. HAP and VOC emissions from white-fir lumber dried at high and conventional temperatures. Forest Products Journal. (In Press).
- Pruyn, M.L., B.L. Gartner and M.E. Harmon. 2002. Respiratory potential in sapwood of old versus young ponderosa pine trees in the Pacific Northwest. Tree Physiology 22. (In Press).
- Pruyn, M.L., B.L. Gartner and M.E. Harmon. 2002. Within-stem variation of respiration in Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas-fir) trees. New Phytologist. (In Press).
- Spicer, R. and B.L. Gartner. 2001. The effects of cambial age and position within the stem on specific conductivity in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) sapwood. Trees 15:222-229.
- Wilson, B.F. and B.L. Gartner. 2002. Effects of stem girdling in conifers on apical control of branches, growth allocation and air in wood. Tree Physiology. (In Press).
- Wilson, J.B. 2001. CORRIM Project Western and Southern Plywood. Project report to: Consortium for Renewable Resources in Industrial Manufacturing. May 15. 64 pp.
- Wilson, J.B. 2001. Fuel-Switching from Wood Residue and Waste to Natural Gas - Is it a Wise Environmental Decision? Abstract. Forest Products Society Annual Meeting, June 26, Baltimore, MD.
- Wing, M. and L. Kellogg. 2001. Using a laser rangefinder to assist harvest planning. In: Proceedings of the First International Precision Forestry Symposium, June 18-19, College of Forest Resources, University of Washington, Seattle.
- Wing, M.G., E.D. Coulter and J. Sessions. 2001. Developing a decision support system to improve transportation planning in landslide prone terrain. In: Proceedings of the International Mountain Logging and 11th Pacific Northwest Skyline Symposium, December 10-11, College of Forest Resources, University of Washington and International Union of Forestry Research Organizations, Seattle, WA.
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