SUSTAINABLE CROPPING SYSTEMS THROUGH DIVERSIFIED CROPPING STRATEGIES IN THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS

• Sponsoring Institution: National Institute of Food and Agriculture
• Project Status: TERMINATED
• Funding Source: HATCH
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 0185726
• Project No.: MONB00351
• Project Start Date: Oct 1, 2013
• Project End Date: Sep 30, 2018

Project Director
Miller, P. R.

Recipient Organization
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
(N/A)
BOZEMAN,MT 59717

Performing Department
Land Resources & Environmental Sciences

Non Technical Summary
There is need for systems research that engages crop diversification optimally in the northern Plains. Farmers seek new knowledge in regard to nitrogen- and water-efficient crop rotations, and strategies to enhance soil productivity. This knowledge is in major demand at farming conferences throughout the northern Plains; during the brief span of writing this proposal I presented this topic thrice, at Medicine Hat, AB, and Billings and Great Falls, MT. This AES research project includes short-, intermediate, and long-term goals that represent a continuum to investigating sustainable cropping systems. Short-term goals include refining tactics available for assembling cropping systems. This includes screening adaptation of alternative crops and assessing genetic variability and agronomic factors, to optimize pulse and oilseed crop adaptation. Intermediate goals pertain to understanding system components; specifically the interaction of diverse crops, typically in 2 to 4 yr cropping sequences. The focus here is on biological interactions (disease, insect, and weed pests), energy budgets, and impacts on key soil constraints (nitrogen, water). Long term goals examine functional cropping systems with a view toward resource use efficiency (water, nitrogen, energy) and impacts on the environment (greenhouse gas balance, soil quality). Outcomes from this project are reflected visibly on the landscape of the northern Plains as the adoption of pulse and oilseed crops. Coincident with the time span of this AES project, pulse crop area has increased from less than 5,000 ha (1998) to > 200,000 ha (2012). This has generated considerable wealth, largely in the place of unproductive fallow. During the same period, oilseed production has struggled to find economic traction, consistent with results from this AES project. Perhaps Montana farmers have been spared significant economic losses by learning at the plot scale the shortcomings of oilseed crops in this semiarid environment . Achieving crop diversification at an ecological level that permits highly efficient pest and soil fertility management eludes much of conventional agriculture. Ecological approaches to farming engage a level of complexity which, although it may promise greater rewards to management, can increase financial risk. Adoption of no-till farming provided an ecological solution that coincidentally enhanced timeliness of farm operations, and reduced labor needs, creating a rare win-win situation for ecology and economics. Are there similar opportunities to be pursued Currently there is emergent farmer interest in cover crops, especially mixed species cover crops, which requires diligent scientific exploration within no-tilled systems. Crop-livestock integration has been another elusive concept. Might this topic make economic sense within the context of organic farming systems Decadal-scale climate variability presents fundamental challenges to northern Plains agriculture. It is critical that knowledge can be commanded of a suite of spring and winter crops to meet such environmental challenges. This AES project is engaging these topics to best position farming in an uncertain future.

Animal Health Component

(N/A)

Research Effort Categories

Basic

(N/A)

Applied

100%

Developmental

(N/A)

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
102	0199	1070	10%
102	2410	1070	10%
102	2499	1070	10%
111	2410	1060	10%
111	2499	1060	10%
111	2300	1060	10%
205	2410	1060	10%
205	2499	1060	10%
205	1412	1060	10%
213	2410	1140	10%

Knowledge Area
213 - Weeds Affecting Plants; 102 - Soil, Plant, Water, Nutrient Relationships; 205 - Plant Management Systems; 111 - Conservation and Efficient Use of Water;

Subject Of Investigation
2300 - Weeds; 1412 - Peas (dry); 0199 - Soil and land, general; 2499 - Plant research, general; 2410 - Cross-commodity research--multiple crops;

Field Of Science
1140 - Weed science; 1060 - Biology (whole systems); 1070 - Ecology;

Keywords

adaptation, agroecology, chickpea, climate variability,

diversification, crop rotation, cropping systems, energy budget,

farming, grain quality, lentil, nitrogen, northern plains, notill,

oilseed, organic, pea, protein, pulse crops, semiarid, soil

productivity, soil quality, sustainable, water use fficiency, wheat,

winter crops, yield

Goals / Objectives
Goal 1. Investigate adaptation, genetic diversity, and agronomic practices for alternative crops in the semiarid U.S. northern Great Plains (in collaboration with M. Burrows, C. Chen and P. Stoy). Expected outcomes include knowledge of soil-climatic adaptation and seedling disease management for winter canola in Montana and adaptation and genetic variation within winter canola, chickpea, lentil, pea and other crops. Goal 2. Evaluate cropping sequence effects within dryland cropping systems that optimize soil N and water use relative to net profit, with special emphasis on the role of cover crops in this region (in collaboration with A. Bekkerman, R. Engel, S. Ewing, C. Jones, K. McVay, B. Maxwell and C. Zabinski). Expected outcomes include knowledge of economic importance of cropping sequence vs fertilizer N management relative to malt barley yield and quality and environmental consequence of pulse crops for changing soil N and water dynamics and ecological potential of cover crop mixtures to increase soil productivity in dryland wheat production. Goal 3. Explore optimal input/management strategies with regard to nutrient and integrated pest management in long-term dryland cropping systems (in collaboration with R. Engel, P. Hatfield, C. Jones, P. Lachapelle, F. Menalled and D. Weaver). Expected outcomes include knowledge of economic importance of long-term cropping system vs fertilizer N management relative to yield, protein, and test weight in wheat production and economic viability and soil nitrogen consequence of grazed legume cover crops in organic systems. Goal 4. Measure soil carbon change under alternative cropping strategies for dryland wheat production in Montana (in collaboration with R. Engel and R. Lawrence). Expected outcomes include knowledge of rate of soil carbon change in response to alternative cropping strategies and scientific benchmarks for trading of carbon credits in Montana relative to tillage systems, cropping intensity, and perennial vegetation (i.e. CRP or forage). Goal 5. Share knowledge gained from this research project with research and extension colleagues, and through direct and indirect communication with farmers and students (in collaboration with M. Burrows, C. Jones, K. McVay and F. Menalled). Expected outcomes include more rapid and efficient transmission of knowledge associated with Goals 1 - 4.

Project Methods
Goal 1, related to alternative crop study, uses simple experimental designs and statistical analyses designed to characterize plant growth and yield responses in appropriate soil-climatic contexts. Interpretation will be limited to general parameters. Goal 2, related to cropping sequence dynamics, focuses on legumes to characterize trade of nitrogen for water in this semiarid context. Experimental designs test simple and complex responses of different crops, growth intervals, and management methods. Contributions are weakly understood at the level of soil biology, and it is crucial to partner with colleagues for interpretation. A key methodology aspect of Goal 3, related to cropping systems function, is the study of long-term diversified cropping systems. A rotation study begun at Bozeman in 2003 is yielding valuable knowledge of the economic and environmental role of grain legumes in wheat-based systems, with a strong focus on soil nitrogen and carbon dynamics. Subsequent long-term studies were begun in 2011 and 2012 at drier sites, more representative of MLRA 52, the largest wheat growing region in MT. These sites contrast in soil texture (clay vs. sandy loam) and will test the long term response of grain legumes in rotation with wheat under a four N fertilizer scenarios. Goal 4, related to land management effects on soil carbon change, has reached maturity. In 2012, soil carbon samples were collected from the long-term rotation study at Bozeman, and from 5 of 6 remaining on-farm trials throughout north central MT. A collaborator, Rick Engel, is analyzing and reporting the soil carbon results, aiming for completion by late 2013. However, due to bottlenecks in soil processing and analysis, it may be 2014 before these analyses are fully complete. Goal 5, related to extension of research results from this cropping systems research project is conducted in collaboration with Extension specialists at MSU. From 2008 to 2012 I had nearly 3,000 contact-hours with farmers and ag industry reps in various outreach venues. However, MSU Extensionists routinely have a greater number of contact-hours, and Clain Jones has been especially active in extending results related to soil nitrogen from this research project. The primary target group for this research project is dryland farmers in Montana. The goal for this project has long been to transform wheat monoculture systems into economically and environmentally superior diversified cropping systems. The more than 10-fold increase in pulse crop production coincident with the time span of this project is testament to some success in this regard. However, there is need for even greater diversity, which this project will continue to explore. Another equally important goal has been to improve summerfallow management in north central Montana. Though some progress has occurred very recently, mainly in the form of decreased fallow acreage, this remains a regionally entrenched issue. Improved knowledge of the agroecological sustainability of organic cropping systems is another challenge, which will see increased activity during the current period of this project.

Progress 10/01/13 to 09/30/18

Outputs
Target Audience:The main audience for this research is formed by crop producers throughout the northern Great Plains. These research objectives are directly relevant, and applicable to this region. I do receive queries from other states and provinces but I am always careful to explain the NGP context before discussion what aspects of this research might translate elsewhere. A related audience is the collection of knowledge brokers, public and private, who serve ultimately the same primary audience. A second audience is policy makers who have an interest in sustainable land management. For example, in 2014 I was one of three researchers in the U.S. Great Plains invited to present a research summary on cover crops at the USDA Cover Crop Research and Termination Guideline Development Workshop in Kansas City, MO, attended by policy makers from USDA divisions of ARS, NRCS, and RMA, National Crop Insurance Services, and the National Wildlife Federation. A third audience is undergraduate and graduate students who will be the agricultural leaders of tomorrow. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Five M.Sc. students completed their theses under my advisement and I've served on seven additional graduate student committees, providing the opportunity to educate budding scientists in the principles and practices of sustainable cropping systems. I currently advise two additional M.Sc. students and serve on graduate committees for four others. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Results from this project have been communicated to local, state, regional, national, and international agricultural audiences, importantly, including approximately 150 undergraduate students and 20 graduate students from Montana, various states, and countries. I also strive to remain in contact with key ag industry personnel within Montana, and elsewhere, who are often better postioned to inform and influence change based on sound agronomic science. Montana growers appear more adventurous than ever, perhaps related to the important economic success of pulse crops in diversifying traditional wheat-based cropping systems. I routinely respond to queries about pulse and oilseed crop management, and recently have receive queries about minor crops such as quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and hemp. I can generally be helpful with the former, but the latter serve more as a need to consider new research projects at MSU by myself or others. Cover crops, compared with chem fallow, remain a management challenge in dryland Montana due to soil N and water depletion that typically reduces the yield of a subsequent crop. However grower interest in cover crops remains strong due to promotion of sustainable soil management practices by the USDA - NRCS, and others, and the advent of cover crop seed purveyors in Montana. A consistent angle important to Montana growers is the use of cover crops as an alternative forage source so I work hard to improve my understanding of that aspect, so that I can better advise growers about economic challenges and opportunities. Organic farmers are an adventurous and enthusiastic group in Montana. Excessive reliance on tillage has been stated as the Achilles heel of organic agriculture; indeed tillage-induced wind and water erosion has damaged soils severely in some cases. Grazing was explored in this AES project as a way to reduce tillage operations and I, and co-PIs Hatfield and Menalled, receive queries seeking advice on optimal grazing strategies throughout the northern Great Plains of Canada and the USA. A recent survey of organic farmers in Montana revealed that five of nine top concerns were related to weed management, and most specifically to two perennial creeping rooted dicot weeds; creeping thistle and field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis). These weeds spread by tillage and once established prevent localized establishment of spring-sown annual crops, and interfere with the growth of fall-sown winter annual crops. To borrow an analogy from F. Menalled, these weeds are the cancer of organic farming systems, and so we are keen to engage Organic farmers in discussions about weed management to spur on further exploration. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Goal 1. Investigate adaptation, genetic diversity, and agronomic practices for alternative crops in the semiarid U.S. northern Great Plains. This project has conducted variety evaluations for winter canola, and four pulse crops (chickpea, fababean, lentil, pea), in support of state or nationally coordinated efforts. A true, but unquantifiable, measure of this project's success is change in crops grown in Montana fieldscapes. Pulse crops have become a major profit center for Montana farmers as the private infrastructure has developed to support handling and marketing of these crops within Montana, which research has shown to have a strong agronomic fit. This AES project was instrumental in obtaining a pulse crop breeder at Montana State University. Dr. Kevin McPhee began his pulse crop breeding duties here January 2017, which will raise the profile for pulse crops and enhance production opportunities for Montana farmers through improved genetic adaptation. Goal 2. Evaluate cropping sequence effects and diversified cropping strategies within dryland cropping systems that optimize soil N and water use relative to net profit, with special emphasis on the role of cover crops in this region. Our long-term emphasis on legume cover crops has evolved into a study of cover crop polycultures. Evaluation of cover crop mixtures continues with a foundational project planned for completion in 2019, which compares the effects of different functional groups over time (4 cycles) on soil biological, chemical, and physical properties. Cover crop mixtures have also been incorporated into two long-term cropping systems studies to compare their effects with systems harvested for grain. Two M.Sc. graduate students engaged this project to complete their theses. Ms. Susan Tallman is a regional agronomist for USDA-NRCS in Montana, and continues to engage cover crops from a policy perspective, and with a desire to infuse scientific data to inform policy. Ms. Megan Housman is a company scientist advising production of Cannabis in Oregon. Ms. Kristi D'Agati is a 3rd and current M.Sc. student associated with this project who will be reporting soil property change after four cycles of cover crop treatments. Her career goal also targets USDA-NRCS. A second cover crop study engaged forage assessment, and grazing in particular, to be more consistent with grower interest. That research was defended by Mr. Robert Walker Oct 16, 2017. Mob-grazing of cover crops affected some soil properties differently from spray-terminated treatments, indicating a need for further study. Mr. Walker has taken a position with the USDA as a biologist specializing in ranching-wildlife interactions in rural Oregon. The summary output from this collective research on legume cover crops and cover crop mixtures will show that use of soil nitrogen, and especially soil water, results in negative economic outcomes in low rainfall areas with uncertain changes in soil properties. As such, this research is likely to caution Montana growers relative to cover crops, and redirect focus onto the value of annual forages within cropping systems. Goal 3. Explore optimal input/management strategies with regard to agroeconomic potential, soil carbon accrual and nitrogen cycling, and integrated pest management in long-term dryland cropping systems under no-till or organic management. In 2013-2017 near Bozeman, MT, two long-term cropping systems studies were continued, one focused on the legacy effects of crop diversity and nitrogen management on subsequent crop productivity (CDRS) and the other focused on the effects of pulse-wheat vs wheat-only cropping systems managed with different N rates on soil quality and economic outcomes (GGRS). Cropping system legacy effects in the CDRS study remained after four years of uniformly managed response crops with legacy N management affecting yields more than current year N rates. This highlights durable effects of improved cropping systems based on the principles of crop diversity and nitrogen management. The GGRS study has arguably been the most valuable cropping systems study ever conducted in Montana, highlighting the value of dry pea in rotation with wheat. Significant gains in economic returns and resiliency have been reported, along with several collegial reports on improved biological, chemical, and physical soil properties, which likely tie directly to the improved resiliency of pulse-wheat systems. These results have been shared widely with Montana farmers, and foreshadowed observations that they have made on their own farms even under drier conditions. A subset of systems conducted under drier conditions in northern Montana has been used to confirm the high value of pulse-wheat systems and to recalibrate a nitrogen fertilizer recommendation model, which may prove especially important due to the recent discovery of crop-limiting urea-induced soil acidity in the seed zone of no-till systems. The GGRS study was recently used to quantify soil acidification regression response to urea-N application, with positive departures from this regression by pea-wheat systems noted. After 2020, we will convert the then 18-yr study to focus on comparative methods for ameliorating near-surface soil acidity. The study of organic cropping systems in this AES project is evolving. A large plot study near Bozeman that is reliant on field-scale tillage and harvesting machinery has engaged Montana Organic Association farmers with field days and progress reports at their annual conference. The first five years of the crop rotation at that site were completed in 2017 yielding several scientific reports from a wide variety of disciplines, but all dependent on the relevant conductance of this study. We have reported widely on the potential for grazing to reduce tillage by more than half in organic systems and generated knowledge of how to economically optimize grazing. However, after five years, a key perennial weed (creeping thistle - Cirsium arvense) has threatened organic systems, and especially the reduced tillage/grazed system, resulting in a new research focus on managing creeping rooted perennial weeds. This research remains of strong interest to the organic farm community in Montana and in neighboring states and provinces. Goal 4. Support colleague's investigation of agricultural constraints and trade-offs for crop adaptation strategies to mitigate potentially harmful effects of climate change. A new dimension to this AES project is represented by collaboration with big scale biological and climatological systems modelers. This has involved my service in an advisory role as a scientist familiar with practical farming concerns in the NGP, and a specific plot-scale study that will compare growth of 2nd generation lignocellulosic ethanol feedstocks comparing C3 and C4 perennial grasses managed with different nitrogen strategies, including a strategy reliant on cyanobacteria production and application. A major aspect of this research will be facilitating instrumentation by collaborators Brookshire and Stoy to measure climatological and N cycle data that will inform models concerned with addressing tradeoffs between carbon mitigation strategies and food production under different climate change scenarios. Goal 5. Share knowledge gained from this research project with research and extension colleagues, and through direct and indirect communication with farmers and students. During this AES project period, study results were reported directly at eight field days in MT, 26 agricultural conferences in MT and ND, and three national webinars totaling and estimated 3,338 contact hours. While this effort to communicated findings from sustainable cropping systems research certainly improved knowledge, stimulated alternative actions, and changed social conditions, it is not possible to quantify.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: . John, A.A., C.A. Jones, S.A. Ewing, W.A. Sigler, A. Bekkerman and P.R. Miller. 2017. Fallow replacement is more important than nitrogen fertilizer management at reducing nitrate leaching in a semiarid region. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 108:279-296
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Lehnhoff, E., Z. Miller, P. Miller, S. Johnson, T. Scott, P. Hatfield, and F. Menalled. 2017. Organic agriculture and the quest for the holy grail in water-limited ecosystems: Managing weeds and reducing tillage intensity. Agriculture Vol. 7(4) 33 (on-line) 16 pp. doi:10.3390/agriculture7040033 [http://www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture]
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Johnson, S.P., Z.J. Miller, E.A. Lehnhoff, P.R. Miller, and F.D. Menalled. 2017. Cropping systems modify the impacts of biotic plant-soil feedbacks on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth and competitive ability. Weed Research. 57:6-15 DOI: 10.1111/wre.12231
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Romero, C., R. Engel, J. D'Andrilli, C. Chen, C. Zabinski, P. Miller, and R. Wallander. 2017. Bulk optical characterization of dissolved organic matter from semiarid wheat-based cropping systems. Geoderma. 306:40-49.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: . Stoy, P.C., S. Ahmed, M. Jarchow, B. Rashford, D. Swanson, S. Albeke, G. Bromley, E.N.J. Brookshire, M. Dixon, J. Haggerty, P. Miller P, B. Peyton, A. Royem, L. Spangler, C. Straub and B. Poulter. 2018. Opportunities and tradeoffs among BECCS and the food, water, energy, biodiversity, and social systems nexus at regional scales. Bioscience 68:100111 [https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/bix145DOI 10.1093/biosci/bix145.}
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Miller, P.R., E.C. Glunk, J.A. Holmes, and R.E. Engel. 2018. Pea and barley hay as fallow replacement for dryland wheat. Agron. J. 110: 833-841.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Mohammed, Y.A., C. Chen, M.K. Walia, J.A. Torrion, K. McVay, P. Lamb, P. Miller, J. Eckhoff, J. Miller and Q. Khan. 2018. Dry pea (Pisum sativum L.) protein, starch and ash concentrations as affected by cultivars and environments. Can. J. Plant Sci. https://doi.org/10.1139/CJPS-2017-0338. Published on the web 18 May 2018.
• Type: Theses/Dissertations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Walker, Robert (Bo) M. 2017. Potential for and implications of cover cropping and grazing cover crops in wheat agroecosystems in Montana. M.Sc. Thesis, Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 150 pp. [https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/14055]
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Burkhardt, A., P. Miller, J. Holmes, J. Schupbach, S. Briar, J. Martin, and J. Sherman, Jamie. Impact of wheat cropping systems and nitrogen fertility on nematode community structure. Western Crop Science Society, Parma ID June 6, 2017.
• Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2018 Citation: Miller, P., C. Jones, C. Zabinski, and J. Holmes. 2018. Mixed Cover Crop and Nitrogen Rate Effects on Wheat Yield and Protein after 6 Years. Montana Fertilizer Facts, No. 76. 3p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/fertilizerfacts/index.html]

Progress 10/01/16 to 09/30/17

Outputs
Target Audience:The target audience for this research is agricultural producers in the semiarid northern Great Plains, and associated public and for-profit knowledge brokers and peer knowledge generators. This audience is engaged directly via various agricultural commodity, Extension, and scientific meetings/conferences within and outside the NGP region and by personal responses via email and telephone. A secondary but no less important target audience is represented by undergraduate and graduate students at Montana State University, who will provide future direction to U.S. agriculture. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Perry Miller and colleagues (eg. Clain Jones) contributed presentations at several producer conferences around Montana in 2016/17, and one webinar, representing more than 700 contact-hours, indicating sustained interest in cropping systems information. Regular discussion is held with Montana NRCS personnel with respect to optimizing cover crop management in semiarid Montana, facilitated greatly by a former M.Sc. student (Susan Tallman) becoming a regional agronomist for NRCS and increasingly serving as the science lead for cover crops in Montana. Additionally Perry Miller appeared twice on a live PBS television program called 'Montana Ag Live' that serves as a phone-in question show targeted at 400,000 households. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Continued advancement under all stated goals, as resources permit. The Organic cropping systems research is at a crucial juncture, urgently requiring funding to enable study of perennial weed management, which is THE major threat to organic crop production in Montana. Our cover crop research is also at a crucial juncture. We have shown that most often there are significantly negative short term effects on soil water and nitrogen and on subsequent cereal crop yield when sowing cover crops during the normal summer fallow period. Under relatively high precipitation we have shown long-term soil and economic benefits to legume cover crops, but replication of this study in a drier zone may not yield similarly positive long-term results. I would like to engage agronomic research in pulse crops and canola to a greater extent but those efforts have been hampered by funding availability.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Goal 1. In 2017, 20 alternative crops were grown in a demonstration trial to provide a focal point for the annual MSU Post Farm field day (~100 attendees) and to provide field-grown crops for 13 students in AGSC 242 Crop Identification. Most species were also harvested for seed renewal. Line 14-24 SB fababean (Vicia faba) was increased to supply seed for a commercial partner in the seed industry focused on cover crops. Eight timings for land rolling lentils (obligate harvest aid) were compared using two seeding dates (early and late), two no-till seed openers (disc vs. knife), and two seeding rates (100 and 200% of recommended). Lentil yield was largely insensitive to roll timing, while no-till seed openers interacted differentially with seeding date (knife was better than disk when seeding early, and worse when seeding late). Increased seeding rate was much more profitable when seeding early vs late due to emergence issues in cold, very wet, herbicide-treated soils, and was economic neutral when sown late in warm, moist soils. Goal 2. In 2017, the wheat test crop phase was conducted at Amsterdam and Conrad, MT, completing the 3rd cycle of a cover crop study investigating soil changes due to different cover crop functional groups (brassicas, cereals, legumes, and tap roots). At Amsterdam, yield on the chem fallow control did not differ from any cover crop treatment. However, grain protein in the chem fallow control was greater than all but the legume cover crop treatments. The legume functional group separated positively from the others, showing 140 kg ha-1 (~8%) greater winter wheat yield and 1.7 %-units greater protein than the average of all non-legume cover crop treatments. At drier Conrad, the fallow control treatment averaged 670 kg ha-1 (32%) greater winter wheat yield, with protein undifferentiated from all but the legume cover crop treatments. This illustrates, yet again, the challenge with cover crop adoption in the lowest precipitation cropping areas of the semiarid northern Plains. Winter wheat yield and protein differences followed a similar trend as at Amsterdam for legume vs. non-legume functional groups, with 90 kg ha-1 (6%) greater yield and 1.3 %-units greater protein. However, for the first time, the Brassica functional group (canola + turnip) yielded 370 kg ha-1 (29%) greater than the minus-Brassica treatment (pea + lentil + safflower + oat + canaryseed). We have no explanation for this difference at this time. The wheat test crop phase for a second site in the north Gallatin Valley (NGV) was sown on cool- and warm- season cover crop treatments that were managed in 2016 with and without grazing. The chem fallow control treatment yielded 310 kg ha-1 (11%) greater spring wheat, while grain protein generally did not differ from other cover crop treatments (except legumes). Grazed cover crop treatments averaged 110 kg ha-1 (4%) less yield than the herbicide-terminated treatments. Phosphatase soil enzyme activity was shown to be greater in grazed vs non-grazed treatments at both sites (P<0.01 at Fort Ellis and non-significant trend at NGV), despite being measured 10 months after a 24-hr grazing period. The role of cover crops in nectar provision to the Braconid parasitoid insect complex with wheat stem sawfly remains under investigation. Thus far, the best candidate species has been buckwheat due to early flowering and attractiveness to Braconid species, but threats to the U.S. wheat trade prohibit growing buckwheat in Montana on land that also produces wheat. Goal 3. Greenhouse Gas Rotation Study: In 2017, this Bozeman study continued into its 15th year with year-1 of the next 4-yr cycle. Three general changes were implemented: 1) Lentil was substituted for spring pea to accumulate rotational data on lentil and conform to Risk Management Agency rotational restrictions, 2) We changed the pea cover crop phases to a 4:3:2 seed mixture of tillage radish, proso millet, and fababean, grown in summer, intended to widen the C:N ratio in an attempt to build soil carbon in those cover crop systems, and 3) We converted the organically managed pea cover - wheat system to a conventional no-till pulse - wheat system to measure potential yield drag after long-term organic management. Much data remains to be processed at the time of this report but lentil yields did not differ between systems with a 14-yr conventional no-till legacy vs following 14 yr of organic management, averaging an economical 1320 kg ha-1. Organic Cropping Systems: In 2017, we completed the final year of a 5-yr crop rotation at Fort Ellis, MT. Through grazing we have been able to avoid tillage for a continuous 36-month period but economic peril is looming due to rapidly increasing infestations of creeping thistle, especially in the rotation phase following non-competitive lentil. Valuation of grazing depends on costing assumptions for fencing infrastructure and water provision. Lentil yields averaged ~1250 kg ha-1 for the Conventional No-till and Organic Grazed systems, and 1600 kg ha-1 for the Organic Tilled system.. However, winter wheat yields were greatest for the Conventional No-till system (5.78 Mg ha-1), nearly attaining the 6 Mg ha-1 yield target for this environment despite an abnormally dry June. Organic Till yielded 4.37 Mg ha-1 and Organic Graze 3.54 Mg ha-1, representing yield reductions of 24% and 39% due to a combination of increased weed pressure, reduced soil fertility, and reduced soil water in the Organic systems. Notably, there were no protein differences among any of the systems in 2017, with overall protein averaging 10.5% at a 12% grain moisture commercial standard. Sweet clover cover crop biomass was again lowest for Chemical No-till (1.2 Mg ha-1), likely due to a combination of rodent feeding and a cool spring microclimate under tall standing wheat stubble. Sweet clover biomass did not differ between the Organic systems and averaged 2.6 Mg ha-1 at tillage termination or onset of grazing. Carbon Accumulation Rotation Block: A new study was initiated near Bozeman, intended to test the limits for soil carbon accumulation. It conducts exemplary no-till crop rotations from different cropping regions of Montana (north central, northeast, southwest, and southeast), with and without cover crops, using recommended rates of N availability, and comparing low disturbance disk opener with medium disturbance knife openers in concomitant tall and short wheat stubble, respectively. At grazing onset, the short stubble-knife opener treatment had 2.8 Mg ha-1 of very high quality forage, compared with 3.5 Mg ha-1 in the tall stubble-disk opener treatment (wheat straw excluded). Yield advantage to the tall stubble-disk opener treatment occurred in all crops except spring pea, where there were no differences between openers. Austrian winter pea seed yields were 160 kg ha-1 (~6%) greater and spring canola yields were 200 kg ha-1 (~11%) greater, while biomass from a 3-species cover crop mixture was 0.46 Mg ha-1 (~20%) greater under tall stubble-disk seeder management. Winter wheat was sown uniformly across all plots in September 2017. Goal 4. Research results were shared with students in multiple classes at Montana State University and in presentations at various farm conferences and field days in Montana. Also, research results were shared with colleagues in an eOrganic webinar in Oct 2016 and at the annual American Society of Agronomy annual conference in Tampa, FL, in Oct 2017.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Engel, R.E., P.R. Miller, B.G. McConkey, R. Wallander, and J.A. Holmes. 2017. Soil organic C changes to ten years of increasing cropping system intensity and no-till in a semiarid climate of the northern Great Plains. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 81:404-413
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Fan, J., B.G. McConkey, H.H. Janzen and P.R. Miller. Emergy and energy analysis as an integrative indicator of sustainability: A case study in semi-arid Canadian farmlands. J. Cleaner Production.
• Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Miller, P. Using cover crop mixtures to improve soil health in low rainfall areas of the northern plains. Final Report. 30 Sep, 2017 40 pp. [https://projects.sare.org/sare_project/SW11-099/]
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Accepted Year Published: 2017 Citation: Jones, C.A., Miller, P.R., T.L. Rick, W.A. Sigler and S.A. Ewing. Nitrate leaching potential in a semi-arid region affected more by crop rotation than nitrogen fertilizer rate. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Oct 22-25, 20176, Tampa, FL (Invited) [https://scisoc.confex.com/scisoc/2017am/webprogram.html]
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Accepted Year Published: 2017 Citation: Miller, P.R., A. Bekkerman, P. Hatfield, F. Menalled, R. Walker, L. Ward, C. Zabinski, E.C. Glunk, and S. Tallman. Integrated crop livestock research in Montana. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Oct 22-25, 20176, Tampa, FL (Invited) [https://scisoc.confex.com/scisoc/2017am/webprogram.html]
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Accepted Year Published: 2017 Citation: Miller, P.R., C.A. Jones and A. Bekkerman. Net revenue of pea cover crop  wheat compared to fallow-, pea grain- and wheat-wheat systems across time and space. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Oct 22-25, 20176, Tampa, FL (Invited)
• Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Miller, P., J. Holmes, R. Engel, A. Bekkerman, C. Jones and S. Ewing. 2017. Long-term profitability of pea-wheat systems, managed at high and low N fertility. Montana Fertilizer Facts, No. 72. 3p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/FertilizerFacts/]
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Briar, S.S., P.M. Carr, G.G. Gramig, F.D. Menalled, and P.R. Miller. Current status and soil biology impacts of organic conservation tillage in the U.S. Great Plains. International seminar on emerging trends in organic farming and sustainable agriculture, Dec 29  31, 2016, Kottayam, India (Invited)

Progress 10/01/15 to 09/30/16

Outputs
Target Audience:The target audience for this research is agricultural producers in the semiarid northern Great Plains, and associated public and for-profit knowledge brokers and peer knowledge generators. This audience is engaged directly via various agricultural commodity, Extension, and scientific meetings/conferences within and outside the NGP region and by personal responses via email and telephone. A secondary but no less important target audience is represented by undergraduate and graduate students at Montana State University, who will provide future direction to U.S. agriculture. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Perry Miller and colleagues (eg. Clain Jones) contributed presentations at several producer conferences around Montana in 2016, and two webinars, including more than 1,000 attendees in total, indicating sustained interest in cropping systems information. Regular discussion is held with Montana NRCS personnel with respect to optimizing cover crop management in semiarid Montana, facilitated greatly by a former M.Sc. student (Susan Tallman) becoming a regional agronomist for NRCS and increasingly serving as the science lead for cover crops in Montana. Additionally Perry Miller appeared twice on a live PBS television program called 'Montana Ag Live' that serves as a phone-in question show targeted at 400,000 households. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Continued advancement under all stated goals, as resources permit. We had hoped to expand our cover crop work with funding from USDA NIFA Western SARE but were rejected consecutively and so will quit that work. Pending success with an in-state source of funding we hope to initiate a new long-term rotation study that focuses on soil carbon accrual based on contrasting cropping systems representative of different regions in Montana.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Goal 1. 2016 reaffirmed the value of mild, dry conditions during seedling establishment of winter canola in southwestern Montana. 2015 fall seedling emergence was one month after seeding due to lack of fall rain. Thus, canola seedlings were at the 2-lf stage entering the winter period. Normally such young seedlings would suffer 100% mortality at Bozeman. However, the mildest winter in decades (ever?) coupled with the driest Jan - June period in more than 100 years at Bozeman fostered very high survival. Drought stress during the bloom period (i.e. June) severely limited yield, but likely would have been much greater than spring canola (no formal comparison possible). There has been some grower success with summer planting of winter canola on chem fallow and we aim to pursue this angle in future studies. Fababean (Vicia faba) accessions were screened for cover crop suitability and four genetic lines were advanced in 2016. One will be selected for further increase in 2017 and commercial release 2017/18. A previously released V. minuta variety (Petite from the University of Minnesota in early 1970's) was promoted to a commercial seed interest for use in regional cover crop mixes. Under Chengci Chen's leadership, variety evaluation trials were conducted at Bozeman for 28 pea lines and 8 lentil lines, constituting a mix of commercially released and advanced genetic lines. Goal 2. In 2015 we published a paper in Agronomy Journal on economic risk that demonstrated soil-mediated agricultural resilience in long-term pea-wheat cropping systems, compared with wheat-only cropping systems. This paper was featured by the A-C-S magazine in 2016 in conjunction with the FAO International Year of the Pulse. Cover crop research was continued to: study the role of alternative plant functional groups (brassicas, cereals, legumes, and tap roots) at four MT locations to complete two cover crop - wheat cycles at two of the sites, and initiate a third cycle at two of the sites. 2016 results continue to show a general and significant yield loss for subsequent wheat following any cover crop treatment, when compared with chem fallow. Legume-only covers are the only functional group consistently causing effects in susbsequent wheat that differ from the other three plant functional groups, related to increased provision of nitrogen. In some cases the early timing of N release is exacerbating 'haying off' and resulting in reduced wheat yields, but with elevated grain protein. study the effects of cool vs warm-season covers, grazed or non-graze terminated, on soil properties and subsequent wheat yield and quality at two locations. All data from this study is being summarized in a M.Sc. thesis that will be completed in 2017. One interesting early finding is that 24 hr of grazing by sheep was sufficient to elevate acid phosphatase enzyme activity compared with ungrazed treatments. compare fababean with pea for biomass production and N contribution at one location. No data have been summarized for this study at time of this report. Goal 3. Organic Cropping Systems: We have continued research in grazing cover crops in organic systems both in a long-term study plan on MSU property near Bozeman (Organically certified in 2015) and on-farm in north central Montana. Through grazing we have been able to eliminate tillage for a continuous 36-month period during a 5-year crop rotation but it will be challenging to achieve a greater no-till period due to weed management. Valuation of grazing presents major uncertainty for economic analysis and is a topic that merits further engagement by economists. To our surprise, winter wheat yields have been comparable between chemical no-till and tilled organic systems, but not wheat protein (much lower in organic). Lentil yields have also been equitable between these systems. Wheat and lentil yields have been lower in the grazed organic system due to increased weed densities, but the achieved yields (~80% of tilled organic) have been surprising considering the much greater weed densities. On-farm data from north central Montana showed a very large yield loss (visual estimate, data not yet processed) from grazed vs tilled green manure plots. This yield loss is not easily explained based on differential weed pressure and rather appears to be a result of less available soil water. Long-term N Management Strategy in No-till Systems: Preliminary data from medium-term rotations that are being conducted in north central Montana (driest and largest cropping region of state where summerfallow is strongly recalcitrant) are showing decidedly positive economic results for pea in rotation with wheat, stronger and earlier than was observed in a long-term study in the generally wetter and cooler climate of Bozeman (southwestern Montana). The study includes four cropping systems, each managed at four N provision targets (ranging from zero to 150% of recommended). Increased N cycling from pulse crops also occurred immediately in these on-farm sites, unlike the 3-cycle lag that occurred in Bozeman. Understanding the interaction of these cropping system effects with variable interannual growing season rainfall patterns will be key to optimizing N fertilizer management. Increased pulse crop adoption in north central Montana is occurring coincident with the time period of these research trials. Goal 4. Crop Diversification Rotation Study - Legacy Effects: 2016 represented the 4th and final year of planned uniform cropping to measure persistence of legacy effects from a previous 12-yr no-till (and organic) crop rotation study (five rotations), structured with contrasting full and half recommended rates for N fertility provision. To our surprise, legacy effects remained measurable for continuous wheat (5% yield reduction) vs diversified crop rotations, organic (5% yield loss) vs. a low-input system using the same crop rotation, and a 2% yield loss for systems previously managed at the full rate of N fertility provision, vs. half rate. Detection of such a small yield difference requires great consistency in the effect of this fertility provision on spring wheat yield and was possibly related to greater 'haying off' that occurred during an exceptionally dry June. Greenhouse Gas Rotation Study: We have submitted and revised a paper to the Soil Science Society of America Journal that we expect to be published in early 2017 that documents soil carbon change after 10 yr in a long-term study conducted near Bozeman with eight alternative cropping systems managed at both full and half rates of recommended nitrogen provision. This paper showed a strong linear relationship (r2=0.87) between plant shoot and root C inputs, and soil organic carbon in the top 0.3 m. Although pea had a special role with respect to N provision to following wheat crops, it's impact on soil carbon appeared simply related to plant C inputs. This N provision varied with weather such that a simple and practical type of soil resilience occurred, backstopping yield and grain protein in wheat. 2016 completed the next and final cycle of this study; analysis is not quite complete at time of this report. This study will be changed beginning in 2017 to reflect more practical choices for pea in rotation with wheat. Goal 5. Research results were shared with students in multiple classes at Montana State University and in presentations at various farm conferences in Montana. Also research results were shared with colleagues at the annual American Society of Agronomy conference in Minneapolis in Nov 2015 (and Phoenix in Nov 2016), and at the Great Plains Soil Fertility Conference in Denver in March 2016.

Publications

• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Nielsen, D.C., M.F. Vigil, P.R. Miller, H. Cutforth, P.M. Carr, J.J. Halvorson, J.D. Holman, M.A. Liebig and P.C. Stoy. Future dryland cropping systems shifts for the US and Canadian Great Plains. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Nov 6-9, 2016, Phoenix, AZ.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Ito, D., R. Keshavarz Afshar, C. Chen*, P. Miller, K. Kephart, K. McVay, P. Lamb, J. Miller, B. Bohannon, M. Knox. 2016. Multi-environmental evaluation of dry pea and lentil cultivars in Montana using the AMMI Model. Crop Sci. 56:520-529 doi:10.2135/cropsci2015.01.0032
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Mohammed, Y.A., C. Chen, K. McPhee, P. Miller, K. McVay, J. Eckhoff, P. Lamb, J. Miller, Q. Khan, B. Bohannon, M. Knox and J. Holmes. 2016. Yield performance and stability of dry pea and lentil genotypes in semi-arid cereal dominated cropping systems. Field Crops Research 188: 31-40. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2016.01.001
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Johnson, S.P., Z.J. Miller, E.A. Lehnhoff, P.R. Miller, and F.D. Menalled. Cropping systems modify the impacts of biotic plant-soil feedbacks on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth and competitive ability. Weed Research. Published online Oct 11, 2016 DOI: 10.1111/wre.12231
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Jones, C.A., P.R Miller, M. Housman, S. Tallman and C. Zabinski. Cover crop diversity: How important is it for soil quality and the subsequent crop? [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Nov 6-9, 2016, Phoenix, AZ.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Miller, P., R. Engel, J. Holmes, M. Housman, C. Jones, S. Tallman, and C. Zabinski. Cover crops in Montana  buying land. Proc. Great Plains Soil Fertility Conf. Denver, CO Mar 1-2, 2016. 16:89-95.

Progress 10/01/14 to 09/30/15

Outputs
Target Audience:The primary target audience for this research is represented by agricultural producers in the semiarid northern Great Plains (NGP), and all associated public and for-profit knowledge brokers and peer knowledge generators. This audience is engaged directly via various agricultural, Extension, and scientific meetings/conferences within and outside the NGP region and by personal responses via email and telephone. A secondary but no less important target audience is represented by undergraduate and graduate students at Montana State University, who will provide future direction to U.S. agriculture. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Perry Miller and colleagues (eg. Clain Jones) contributed presentations at several producer conferences around the northern Plains region in 2015 including more than 500 attendees in total, indicating sustained interest in cropping systems information. Regular discussion is held with Montana NRCS personnel with respect to optimizing cover crop management in semiarid Montana, facilitated greatly by a former M.Sc. student (Susan Tallman) becoming a regional agronomist for NRCS and increasingly serving as the science lead for cover crops in Montana. A 3-page article on soil health, quoting Susan extensively, in the most popular farming newspaper in Montana and Wyoming (Prairie Star, Nov 27, 2015 issue) is the best example of communicating this collaborative effort to a general producer audience. Additionally Perry Miller appeared twice on a live PBS television program called 'Montana Ag Live' that serves as a phone-in question show targeted at 400,000 households. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Continued advancement under all stated goals, as resources permit. Our most vigorous activity is planned relative to cover crops, pending funding success with USDA NIFA Western SARE and other in-state sources. The soil carbon sequestration work under Goal 4 will be paused after the publication of the summative paper led by Rick Engel.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Accomplishments by Goal Goal 1. 2015 provided further evidence of the importance of a dry early spring to foster winter canola survival (winter canola appears highly intolerant of waterlogged soils). Unfortunately a record hot and dry June in Bozeman, coincident with winter canola bloom period, severely limited yield potential. These results have been communicated informally to growers with interest in experimenting with winter canola in Montana and elsewhere. Fababean (Vicia faba) accessions have been screened for cover crop suitability and four genetic lines are poised for breeder seed release after one more production cycle, which is needed to confirm genetic homozygosity for ideo-typic traits. One line was discarded in 2015 since it did not meet ideotype standards for seed coat color and seed size (too large). A previously released V. minuta variety (Petite from the University of Minnesota in early 1970's) has been increased successfully from a 25-seed allotment provided to me by the USDA-ARS Western Regional Plant Introduction Center and will be transferred to a private company for further increase and marketing in early 2016. Note that most of the 25-seed allotments representing the world collection for fababean were highly heterogeneous for seed size and color, likely due to substantial outcrossing in V. faba. Apparently a strict species barrier does exist between V. faba and V. minuta, despite strong similarity in plant appearance and growth habit, since no seed heterogeneity was observed for Petite V. minuta. Goal 2. In 2015 we published a paper in Agronomy Journal on economic risk that demonstrated soil-mediated agricultural resilience in long-term pea-wheat cropping systems, compared with wheat-only cropping systems. This paper will be featured by the A-C-S magazine in early 2016 in conjunction with the FAO International Year of the Pulse. Cover crop research is being ramped up to explore a) various cover crop responses after three and four cycles, b) implications of grazing cover crops in semiarid Montana, and c) presumed advantage of fababean over other legume possibilities. 2015 results are in preliminary stage but it appears that an unusually hot dry June penalized wheat grown following any cover crop that enriched soil N early in the growth cycle, consistent with the concept of 'haying off'. Thus the legume-centric cover crops caused some of the lowest wheat yields (and highest protein) and overall average wheat yields following any cover crop were about 50% of that of the fallow-check plots, the biggest yield penalty we've seen in our research on this topic in 15+ years. Goal 3. We have continued research in grazing cover crops in organic systems both in a long-term study plan on MSU property near Bozeman (Organically certified in 2015) and on-farm in north central Montana. Grazing with the goal of reducing tillage continues to present weed management challenges and economic assessment will hinge on the valuation of grazing for livestock maintenance and weight gain. Preliminary data from medium-term rotations that are being conducted in north central Montana (driest region of state where summerfallow is strongly recalcitrant) are showing positive economic results for pea in rotation with wheat, stronger and earlier than was observed in a long-term study in the generally wetter and cooler climate of Bozeman. Understanding the interaction of these cropping system effects with variable interannual growing season rainfall patterns will be key. Goal 4. We have a paper planned for submission before the end of 2015 that will document soil carbon change after 10 yr in on-farm settings in north central Montana, and in a long-term study conducted near Bozeman with a greater number of comparative systems, over the same time period. This will provide the most robust soil carbon data to date within the wheat-summerfallow region of Montana and be important to soil management policy there. Goal 5. Research results were shared with students in multiple classes at Montana State University and in presentations at various farm conferences in Montana and North Dakota. Also research results were shared with colleagues at the annual American Society of Agronomy conference in Long Beach, CA in Nov 2014, and will be also in Minneapolis in Nov 2015.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Miller P.R., A. Bekkerman, C.A. Jones, M.A. Burgess, J.A. Holmes and R.E. Engel. 2015. Pea in rotation with wheat reduced uncertainty of economic returns in southwest Montana. Agron. J. 107:541-550. doi:10.2134/agronj14.018
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: O'Dea, J.K., C.A. Jones, C.A. Zabinski, P.R. Miller and I.N. Keren. 2015. Legume, cropping intensity, and N-fertilization effects on soil attributes and processes in soils from an eight-year-old semiarid wheat system. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst.102:179-194.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Park, E.Y., B-K Baik, P.R. Miller, I.C. Burke, E.A. Wegner, N.E. Tautges, C.F. Morris and E.P. Fuerst. 2015. Functional and nutritional characteristics of wheat grown in organic and conventional cropping systems. Cereal Chem. 92:504-512.

Progress 10/01/13 to 09/30/14

Outputs
Target Audience: The target audiences for this research project are dryland farmers, and associated knowledge brokers, in the semiarid northern Great Plains. Our long term focus on the use of pulse crops to sustainably diversify wheat-based systems is being adopted on a significant scale in Montana. At the start of this project in 1998 there were fewer than 50,000 acres of pea, lentil, and chickpea produced in Montana and there were 700,000 acres in 2014. This 14-fold increase represents an important new source of diversified revenue for northern Plains U.S. farmers, important contributions to wheat yield and protein and wheat nitrogen supply by these N-fixing crops, and thus, an important ecological shift in these semiarid cropping systems (i.e. soil nitrogen and biology, water use efficiency, increased energy efficiency). Importantly, pulse crops have displaced the soil-harmful practice of summerfallow on many farms. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Perry Miller contributed presentations at several producer conferences around the northern Plains region in 2014 including more than 500 attendees in total, indicating sustained interest in cropping systems information. Perry Miller was also invited to a national USDA agency meeting to present research on cover crop challenges and successes in semiarid ecosystems to help design appropriate farm policy. Additionally Perry Miller appeared twice on a live PBS television program called ‘Montana Ag Live’ that serves as a phone-in question show targeted at 400,000 households. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Continued advancement under all stated goals, as resources permit.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Goal 1.2014 concluded that winter canola remains an extremely brittle system, with yield potential from 150 to 300% of that for spring canola, but prone to catastrophic failure. These findings were reported at the 2014 U.S. Canola Association conference. Fababean accessions have been screened for cover crop suitability and five genetic lines are in the early stages of advancement to commercialization. Goal 2.Results from the long-term cover crop research in this project were used to help NRCS set national, state, and local policy relative to the inclusion of cover crops in semiarid northern Plains systems. We published a paper on economic risk that demonstrated the importance of long-term consideration of legumes (pea) in sequence with wheat. Further, preliminary evidence is showing the importance of legumes as a functional cover crop component for maximizing subsequent wheat yield. Additional research is exploring the role of grazing in association with cover crops. Goal 3.We have initiated research in grazing cover crops in organic systems both in a long-term study on MSU property near Bozeman and on farm in north central Montana. Very positive economic results attained with pea in rotation with wheat near Bozeman are being replicated on-farm at two drier sites in north central Montana. Preliminary results suggest that we are seeing similar soil N building at those drier sites. Goal 4.New understanding of pulse crop adoption and summer fallow strip abandonment was gained via the Ph.D. thesis of John Long and his resultant three publications recorded elsewhere in this report. By the 2015 report Rick Engel should have a final report for on-farm soil carbon sequestration from a 10-yr study (2003-2012) in addition to results from a plot-scale study over the same time period near Bozeman. Goal 5.Research results were shared with students in multiple classes at Montana State University and in regular presentations at various farm conferences in Montana and Alberta, Canada.

Publications

• Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2014 Citation: Burgess, M.B., P.R. Miller, C.A. Jones, and A. Bekkerman. 2014. Tillage of annual legume cover crops accelerates nitrogen uptake of spring wheat. Agron. J. (accepted Apr 8 2014)
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2015 Citation: Miller, P.R., A. Bekkerman, C.A. Jones, M.A. Burgess, J.A. Holmes, and R.E. Engel. Pea in rotation with wheat reduced uncertainty of economic returns in southwest Montana. Agron. J. (Accepted Sep 28, 2014)
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Submitted Year Published: 2015 Citation: O'Dea, J.K., C.A. Jones, C.A. Zabinski, I.N. Keren and P.R. Miller. Legume, cropping intensity, and N-fertilization effects on attributes and processes in soils from an eight-year-old semiarid wheat system. Plant and Soil (Submitted Sep 9, 2014 to Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys.).
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Long, J.A., R.L. Lawrence, M.C. Greenwood, L. Marshall and P. Miller. 2013. Object-oriented crop classification using multitemporal ETM+ SLC-off imagery and random forest. GIScience & Remote Sensing 50:418-436. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15481603.2013.817150]
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Long, J.A., R.L. Lawrence, P. Miller and L. Marshall. 2014. Changes in field-level cropping sequences: Indicators of shifting agricultural practices. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 189:11-20.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Long, J.A., R.L. Lawrence, P.R. Miller, L.A. Marshall and M.C. Greenwood. 2014. Adoption of cropping sequences in northeast Montana: A spatio-temporal analysis. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 197:77-87.

Progress 01/01/12 to 12/31/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In 2012 near Bozeman, MT, two long-term cropping systems studies were continued, one focused on crop diversity and the other on soil quality during a 50-yr record drought. This research aims to intensify fallow-wheat systems in an energetically and economically rational manner. The crop diversity rotation study compares no-till and organic management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, in high and low input management scenarios. 2012 represented yr-4 of the 3rd and final 4-yr crop cycle. Barley, canola, corn, flax, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), safflower, sweet clover, sunflower, triticale (spring and winter), and wheat (spring and winter) have been grown in this study. The total weed census approximately quadrupled from 2004 to 2012 but the relatively benign pennycress (Thlaspi arvense) alone accounted for 54% of the total. Given its excellent adaptation to this region we will begin investigations of oil feedstock potential from this species, as has begun in other regions. Three weeds accounted for 80% of the total census; in addition to pennycress, prickly lettuce (Lactuca scariola) was 17% and downy brome (Bromus tectorum) was10%. No other weed accounted for more than 5% of the census; somewhat remarkable in that wild oat (Avena fatua) was deliberately planted at high densities in about 20% of the plots in 2000. After 2012, 5 of 8 organic plots in this study resumed conventional management to control creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense). We think this was due largely to the design of a crop rotation that did not extract sufficient soil water in the Gallatin Valley environment. The most economical organic crop has been lentil, which yielded on average equal with conventional no-till lentil over the last two cycles of this crop rotation study, and is twice as valuable. In support of pending organic research projects, sheep grazing was introduced in the organic system 2011 - 2012 for the first time to explore no-till management in organic systems. Sheep were used both to terminate sweet clover green manure, requiring three grazing's between June 15 and Sep 15, and to graze weedy winter wheat May 3 that regrew and produced 1.5 Mg/ha (25 bu/ac). During this drought year reduced fertilizer N rates resulted in increased no-till wheat yield by 0.4 Mg/ha (6 bu/ac; P<0.0001). Although wheat yields in the continuous wheat system have averaged 24% less than in diversified no-till systems, it has remained surprisingly yield-resilient after 13 yr of continuous spring or winter wheat despite intense pressure from weeds, insects, and diseases. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares 4-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till, and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. an oilseed-wheat and various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture. Economic analysis of the last 4-yr cycle showed that pea-containing systems were superior to non-pea systems. Study results were shared in several grower meetings, in multiple curricula at MSU, live PBS television program Montana Ag Live, and via personal contact with regional knowledge brokers. PARTICIPANTS: The following individuals worked on this project in 2012: Dr. Perry Miller, Professor of Sustainable Cropping Systems, MSU Dr. Anton Bekkerman, Asst. Professor of Agricultural Economics, MSU Dr. Rick Engel, Assoc. Professor of Soil Fertility, MSU Dr. Pat Hatfield, Professor of Sheep Management, MSU Dr. Clain Jones, Asst. Professor of Soil Nutrient Cycling, MSU Dr. Cathy Zabinski, Assoc. Professor of Rhizosphere Ecology, MSU Mr. Jeff Holmes, Research Associate, MSU Ms. Rosie Wallander, Research Associate, MSU Ms. Terry Rick, Research Associate, MSU The following individuals received training on this project in 2012: Mr. Mac Burgess, Ph.D. candidate, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, MSU. Mr. Justin Odea, M.Sc., Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, MSU. Ms. Ann McCauley, M.Sc., Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, MSU. Ms. Susan Tallman, M.Sc., Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, MSU. Ms. Lindsey Cope, undergraduate senior, PSPP Crop Science major, MSU The Montana Wheat and Barley Committee helped to support these studies through a grant awarded to Perry Miller resulting from check off funds on the sale of wheat and barley in Montana. The Montana Fertilizer Advisory Council also supported these studies through grants awarded to Perry Miller and Clain Jones resulting from check off funds on the sale of fertilizer in the state of Montana. TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audiences for this research project are dryland farmers in the semiarid northern Great Plains. Our long term focus on the use of pulse crops to sustainably diversify wheat-based systems is being adopted on a significant scale in Montana. There were fewer than 50,000 acres of pea, lentil, and chickpea produced in Montana in 1998 when this project began, and there were 530,000 acres in 2012. This 10-fold increase represents an astonishing source of diversified revenue for northern Plains U.S. farmers, important contributions to wheat yield and protein and wheat nitrogen supply by these N-fixing crops, and thus, an important ecological shift in these semiarid cropping systems (i.e. soil nitrogen and biology, water use efficiency, increased energy efficiency). Importantly, pulse crops have displaced the soil-harmful practice of summer fallow on many farms. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Rotation studies address long term questions related to energy, nitrogen, and water-use-efficiency and soil quality. These studies provided data for the first measurement of crop energy budgets performed in Montana, potentially crucial with uncertain energy costs. Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Pulse crops (pea and lentil) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana was 530,000 acres in 2012, due in part to the contributions of this research project. Perry Miller contributed presentations at several organic and conventional producer conferences around the northern Plains region in 2012 including more than 500 attendees in total, indicating sustained interest in pulse crop production. Pulse crops have provided an important new source of income for Montana farmers, and an important tool in improving on-farm energy balance by offsetting N fertilizer. Related to this research, an on-farm phase of crop energy budget research was completed for northeast Montana in 2009 that showed an average wheat yield increase of 40% accompanied by an average fertilizer N reduction of 15 kg/ha compared with continuous wheat systems. This was published in the Journal of Sustainable Agriculture in 2012. Results from the greenhouse gas rotation study is contributing key knowledge about the rates of soil carbon sequestration and nitrous oxide emission, critically underpinning our understanding of the carbon footprint for Montana cropping systems. Our inability to accurately predict soil N supply within the pea green manure-wheat system indicates long term soil change that results in more fertilizer N being applied than is actually required. This is an important finding that has spurred additional lines of research sponsored by the Montana Fertilizer Advisory Council. This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops, including winter canola, so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful.

Publications

• Aiken, R. and P. Miller. Principles of transpiration and crop water production functions. [abstract] ASA-CSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Oct 21-24, 2012, Cincinnati, OH. (Invited)
• Burgess, M.H. 2012. Sustainable cropping systems for the northern Great Plains - energetic and economic considerations. Ph.D. Diss. Montana State Univ., Bozeman.
• Burgess, M., P. Miller, and C. Jones. 2012. Pulse crops improve energy intensity and productivity of cereal production in Montana, U.S.A. J. Sust. Ag. 36:699-718 [doi: 10.1080/10440046.2012.672380]
• Carr, P.M. R.L. Anderson, Y.E. Lawley, P.R. Miller, and S.F. Zwinger. 2012. Organic zero-till in the northern US Great Plains Region: Opportunities and obstacles. Renew. Agric. Food Sys. 27:12-20 [doi:10.1017/S174217051100041X]
• Jones, C. P. Miller, J. ODea, A. McCauley, and M. Burgess. 2012. Short and long-term effects of legume green manures and N rate in a cereal cropping system on yield and soil N. In Schlegel A. and H. D. Bond (eds) Proc. Great Plains Soil Fertility Conf. Denver, CO. Mar 6-7, 2012.14: 89-95.
• McCauley, A., C. Jones, P. Miller, M. Burgess, and C. Zabinski. 2012. Nitrogen fixation by pea and lentil green manures in a semi-arid cropping system: Effect of planting and termination time. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 92: 305-314. [doi:10.1007/s10705-012-9491-3]
• McCauley, A.M., C.A. Jones, C.A. Zabinski, and P.R. Miller. 2012. Nitrogen fixation of annual legumes: effects of phosphorus and arbuscular mycorrhizae. In Schlegel A. and H. D. Bond (eds) Proc. Great Plains Soil Fertility Conf. Denver, CO Mar 6-7, 2012.14:119-125.
• Miller, P.R., and J.A. Holmes. 2012. Comparative soil water use by annual crops at a semiarid site in Montana. Can. J. Plant Sci. 92:803-807
• Miller, P., C. Jones, M. Burgess, J. ODea and A. McCauley. 2012. Legume green manures in fallow wheat notill systems: Do they work in Montana? [abstract] ASA-CSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Oct 21-24, 2012, Cincinnati, OH.
• Rick, T.L., C. Jones, P. Miller and A. McCauley. 2012. Crop diversification effects on soil nutrient levels in long-term dryland cropping systems in Montana. [abstract] ASA-CSA-SSSA Annual Meeting, Oct 21-24, 2012, Cincinnati, OH.
• Shrestha, B.M., B.G. McConkey, W.N. Smith, R.L. Desjardins, C.A. Campbell, B.B. Grant, and P.R. Miller. 2013. Effects of crop rotation, crop type and tillage on soil organic carbon in a semiarid climate. Can. J. Soil Sci. 93: 1-10 (on-line). [doi:10.4141/CJSS2012-078]

Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In 2011 near Bozeman, MT, two long-term cropping systems studies were continued, one focused on crop diversity and the other on soil quality. This research aims to intensify fallow-wheat systems in an energetically and economically sensible manner. The crop diversity rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, in high and low input management scenarios. 2011 represented yr-3 of the 3rd and final 4-yr crop cycle. Barley, canola, corn, flax, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), safflower, sweet clover, sunflower, triticale (spring and winter), and wheat (spring and winter) have been grown in this study. Due to improved weed control in pea and lentil, the annual weed census was only 51% of that for 2010. 23,902 individuals were counted from 65 plots, including 21 non-crop species (i.e. site average > 200 weeds/m2 emerged prior to control measures). Just three weeds accounted for 80% of total weeds; pennycress (54%), prickly lettuce (18%), and wild oat (8%). The most serious threat to the organic system remains to be creeping (aka Canada) thistle. After 2012, 5 of 8 organic plots in this study would resume conventional management to control this game-changing weed. We think this was due largely to the design of a crop rotation that did not extract sufficient soil water in the Gallatin Valley environment. The most economical organic crop has been lentil, which on average has not differed from conventional no-till lentil over the last two cycles of this crop rotation study. In support of pending organic research projects, sheep grazing was introduced in the organic system for the first time, to terminate sweet clover green manure, which required three grazing's between June 15 and Sep 15. Reducing fertilizer N rates to half recommended reduced canola yield by 0.6 Mg/ha and safflower yield by 0.5 Mg/ha, economically damaging in both cases. However, in the case of a 3rd oilseed crop, flax, there was no yield response to reduced N rate. Although wheat yields in the continuous wheat system have averaged 23% less than in diversified no-till systems, it has remained surprisingly yield-resilient after 12 years of continuous spring or winter wheat despite intense pressure from weeds, insects, and diseases. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares 4-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till, and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. an oilseed-wheat and various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture. Winter pea and canola suffered major stand loss during the spring recovery period likely due to a disease complex that remains to be characterized (one proposal pending on this topic). Winter canola, safflower, pea, lentil, and chickpea variety trials were conducted and results entered in state-wide summaries. Study results were shared in several grower meetings, in multiple curricula at MSU, live PBS television program Montana Ag Live, and via personal contact with agricultural knowledge brokers in and outside of Montana. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. Perry Miller, Professor of Sustainable Cropping Systems, MSU; Dr. Clain Jones, Asst. Professor of Soil Nutrient Cycling, MSU; Dr. Rick Engel, Assoc. Professor of Soil Fertility, MSU; Dr. Anton Bekkerman, Asst. Professor of Agricultural Economics, MSU; Mr. Jeff Holmes, Research Associate, MSU; Ms. Rosie Wallander, Research Associate, MSU; Ms. Terry Rick, Research Associate, MSU. The following individuals received training on this project: Mr. Mac Burgess, Ph.D. candidate, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, MSU; Mr. Justin Odea, M.Sc., Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, MSU; Ms. Ann McCauley, M.Sc., Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, MSU; Mr. Michael Nault, undergraduate senior, LRES Agroecology major, MSU. The Montana Wheat and Barley Committee helped to support these studies through a grant awarded to Perry Miller resulting from check off funds on the sale of wheat and barley in Montana. The Montana Fertilizer Advisory Council also supported these studies through grants awarded to Perry Miller and Clain Jones resulting from check off funds on the sale of fertilizer in the state of Montana. TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audience for this research project is dryland farmers in the semiarid northern Great Plains. Our long term focus on the use of pulse crops to sustainably diversify wheat-based systems is being adopted on a significant scale in Montana. There were fewer than 50,000 acres of pea, lentil, and chickpea produced in Montana in 1998 when this project began, and there were nearly 500,000 acres in 2011, despite excessively wet spring planting conditions that prevented planting of an unknown number of pulse crops. This 10-fold increase represents an astonishing source of diversified revenue for northern Plains U.S. farmers, important contributions to wheat nitrogen supply by these N-fixing crops, and thus, an important ecological shift in these semiarid cropping systems (i.e. soil nitrogen and biology, water use efficiency, increased energy efficiency). Importantly, pulse crops have displaced the soil-harmful practice of summer fallow on many farms. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Rotation studies address long term questions related to energy, nitrogen, and water-use-efficiency and soil quality. These studies are providing data for the first measurement of crop energy budgets performed in Montana, especially critical with uncertain energy costs. Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Pulse crops (pea and lentil) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana was again near 500,000 acres in 2011, due in part to the contributions of this research project. Perry Miller contributed presentations at several organic and conventional producer conferences around Montana in 2011 including more than 600 attendees in total, indicating sustained interest in pulse crop production. Perry Miller also participated in a Soil Health Training workshop to 50 Montana NRCS agents, presenting results from this research project. Pulse crops have provided an important new source of income for Montana farmers, and an important tool in improving on-farm energy balance by offsetting N fertilizer. Related to this research, an on-farm phase of crop energy budget research was completed for northeast Montana in 2009 that showed an average wheat yield increase of 40% accompanied by an average fertilizer N reduction of 15 kg/ha compared with continuous wheat systems. This was submitted for publication in the Journal of Sustainable Agriculture in 2011. Results from the greenhouse gas rotation study is contributing key knowledge about the rates of soil carbon sequestration and nitrous oxide emission, critically underpinning our understanding of the carbon footprint for Montana cropping systems. Our inability to accurately predict soil N supply within the pea green manure-wheat system indicates long term soil change that results in more fertilizer N being applied than is actually required. This is an important finding that has spurred additional lines of research sponsored by the Montana Fertilizer Advisory Council. This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful.

Publications

• Burgess, M., P. Miller, and C. Jones. 2011. Effect of tillage on nitrogen cycling from annual legume green manures. Montana Fertilizer Facts, No. 58. 2p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/FertilizerFacts/]
• Chen, C., J. Eckhoff, K. Kephart, P. Lamb, H. Mason, K. McVay, J. Miller, P. Miller, M. Westcott. 2011. Variety adaptability and yield stability analysis for a statewide variety testing study in Montana. Northern American Pulse Improvement Association Biennial Meeting. 3-4 November, 2011. San Juan, Puerto Rico.
• Jones, C., T. Rick, R. Engel, P. Miller, K. Olson-Rutz, A. Moore and S. Arnold. 2011. Comparison between online and hardcopy responses from a grower survey on urea volatilization. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 16-19, 2011 San Antonio, TX.http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2011am/webprogram/Paper68674.html [verified Jan 9, 2012]
• McCauley, A., C. Jones, C. Zabinski and P. Miller. 2011. Arbuscular mycorrhizae and fertilizer phosphorus effects on symbiotic nitrogen fixation and phosphorus availability in pulse crops. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 16-19, 2011 San Antonio, TX. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2011am/webprogram/Paper66468.html [verified Jan 9, 2012]
• McCauley, A., P. Miller, J. Holmes, and M. Burgess. 2011. Improving legume green manure management through seeding rates and termination timing. Montana Fertilizer Facts, No. 61. 2p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/FertilizerFacts/]
• Miller, P.R., E.J. Lighthiser, C.A. Jones, J.A. Holmes, T.L. Rick, and J.M. Wraith. 2011. Pea green manure management affects organic winter wheat yield and quality in semiarid Montana Can. J. Plant Sci. 91: 497-508. (http://pubs.aic.ca/doi/abs/10.4141/cjps10109)
• ODea, J.K., C.A. Jones*, I.N. Keren, C.A. Zabinski, P.R. Miller. 2011. Legume and cropping intensity effects on soil quality after seven years in a dryland wheat agroecosystem. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 16-19, 2011 San Antonio, TX. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2011am/webprogram/Paper66747.html [verified Jan 2, 2012]
• Rick, T.L., C.A. Jones, R.E. Engel, and P.R. Miller. 2011. Green manure and phosphate rock effects on phosphorus availability in a northern Great Plains dryland organic cropping system. Organic Agriculture. 1:81-90. doi: 10.1007/s13165-011-0007-2.
• Watts, J.D., R.L. Lawrence, P. Miller, and C. Montagne. 2011. An analysis of cropland carbon sequestration estimates for north central Montana. Climatic Change. Published online: 05 Feb, 2011

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In 2010 near Bozeman, MT, two long-term cropping systems studies were continued, one focused on crop diversity and the other on soil quality. This research aims to intensify fallow-wheat systems in an energetically and economically sensible manner. The crop diversity rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, in high and low input management scenarios. 2010 represented yr-2 of the 3rd 4-yr crop cycle. Barley, canola, corn, flax, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), safflower, sweet clover, sunflower, triticale (spring and winter), and wheat (spring and winter) have been grown in this study. The annual weed census included 44,756 individuals from 65 plots, including 24 non-crop species (i.e. site average > 400 weeds/m2 emerged prior to control measures). This was a 55% increase over 2009, continuing a sharp upward trend that requires greater focus on specific weed control. Just four weeds accounted for 85% of total weeds; prickly lettuce (34%), pennycress (36%), downy brome (7%), and volunteer cereal (8%). The increase in prickly lettuce and downy brome is most problematic and requires focused herbicidal treatment; conversely pennycress is causing little yield loss despite high densities. Average weed density in the organic system (820/m2) was almost double that of the no-till cropping systems (460/m2), but the organic weed community was represented heavily by pennycress (643/m2). The most serious threat to the organic system remains creeping (aka Canada) thistle. Currently 3 of 8 organic plots in this study were reverted to conventional management to control this game-changing weed. In 2009, weed census was very high in pea plots, especially winter pea, and near zero in RR canola plots. However, in 2010, the weed census in wheat grown on pea plots was half that of canola stubble, and yield was 31 to 38% greater on pea stubble, highlighting strong inter-annual variation in weed communities. Reducing fertilizer N rates to half recommended for spring wheat, winter wheat, and corn reduced grain yield by 20-32%. The past two years, with adequate rainfall, full recommended rates of N were important to optimize crop yields. Organic winter wheat yielded 2.5 Mg/ha compared with 4.0-5.3 Mg/ha for well fertilized no-till winter wheat. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares 4-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till, and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. an oilseed-wheat and various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture. The most notable result in 2010 was the high rate of soil N supply from the pea green manure-wheat system in the 8th year of this system, compared with all other cropping systems. Repeated presence of pea green manure has built up the soil N supplying power of this soil in a cumulative manner. Study results were shared in three grower meetings organized by the Northern Pulse Growers Assoc., a Montana State University crop management workshop, in multiple curricula at MSU, live television of PBS program Montana Ag Live, and via personal contact with agricultural knowledge brokers in and outside of Montana. PARTICIPANTS: The following individuals worked on this project: Dr. Perry Miller, Professor of Sustainable Cropping Systems, MSU; Dr. Clain Jones, Asst. Professor of Soil Nutrient Cycling, MSU; Dr. Rick Engel, Assoc. Professor of Soil Fertility, MSU; Dr. Dave Buschena (deceased), Professor of Agricultural Economics, MSU; Mr. Jeff Holmes, Research Associate, MSU; Ms. Rosie Wallander, Research Associate, MSU; and MS. Terry Rick, Research Associate, MSU. The following individuals received training on this project: Mr. Mac Burgess, Ph.D. candidate, Ecology and Environmental Sciences, MSU; Mr. Justin Odea, M.Sc. candidate, Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, MSU; Ms. Ann McCauley, M.Sc. candidate, Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, MSU; and Ms. Carol McFarland, undergraduate senior, LRES Agroecology major, MSU. The Montana Wheat and Barley Committee helped to support these studies through a grant awarded to Perry Miller resulting from check off funds on the sale of wheat and barley in Montana. TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audiences for this research project are dryland farmers in the semiarid northern Great Plains. Our long term focus on the use of pulse crops to sustainably diversify wheat-based systems is being adopted on a significant scale in Montana. There were fewer than 50,000 acres of pea, lentil, and chickpea produced in Montana in 1998 when this project began, and there were nearly 500,000 acres in 2010. This 10-fold increase represents a significant source of diversified revenue for northern Plains U.S. farmers, important contributions to wheat nitrogen supply by these N-fixing crops, and thus, an important ecological shift in these semiarid cropping systems (i.e. soil nitrogen and biology, water use efficiency, increased energy efficiency). Importantly, pulse crops have displaced the soil-harmful practice of summerfallow on many farms. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Rotation studies address long term questions related to energy, nitrogen, and water-use-efficiency and soil quality. These studies are providing data for the first measurement of crop energy budgets performed in Montana, especially critical with uncertain energy costs. Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Pulse crops (pea and lentil) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana neared 500,000 acres in 2010, due in part to the contributions of this research project. Perry Miller served as a keynote speaker at Montana Pulse Days held Feb and Dec 2010 in Great Falls, MT, and Dec 2010 in Shelby, MT, which drew much larger than anticipated audiences (700 in total) indicating interest in further expansion of pulse crop production. This has meant an important new source of income for Montana farmers, and an important tool in improving on-farm energy balance by offsetting N fertilizer. Related to this research, an on-farm phase of crop energy budget research was completed for northeast Montana in 2009 that showed an average wheat yield increase of 40% accompanied by an average fertilizer N reduction of 15 kg/ha compared with continuous wheat systems. Results from the greenhouse gas rotation study is contributing key knowledge about the rates of soil carbon sequestration and nitrous oxide emission, critically underpinning our understanding of the carbon footprint for Montana cropping systems. Our inability to accurately predict soil N supply within the pea green manure-wheat system indicates long term soil change that results in more fertilizer N being applied than is actually required. This is an important finding that is spurring additional lines of research in 2011. This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful.

Publications

• Tanaka, D.L., D.J. Lyon, P.R. Miller, S.D. Merrill, and B.G. McConkey. 2010. Soil and water conservation advances in the semiarid northern Great Plains. Chap. 3, p. 81-102 In Soil and Water Conservation Advances in the USA. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Pub. No. 60 Madison, WI.
• Burgess, M. and P. Miller. 2010. Energy intensity of alternative wheat-based crop rotations. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 31-Nov. 4, 2010 Long Beach, CA. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2010am/webprogram/Person306059.html [verified Nov 15, 2010]
• Burgess, M., P. Miller, and C. Jones. 2010. Legume green manures in Montana dryland cropping systems: Summer fallows last stand. p. 72-78 In A. Schlegel and H.D. Bond (eds) Proc. Great Plains Soil Fertility Conference. Mar 2-3, 2010, Denver, CO.
• Carr, P., R. Anderson, Y. Lawley, P. Miller and S.F. Zwinger. 2010. Organic zero-till in the dryland U.S. Plains region: Opportunities and obstacles. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 31-Nov. 4, 2010 Long Beach, CA. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2010am/webprogram/Paper57531.html [verified Jan 4, 2011]
• Carr, P., Y. Lawley, R.S. Little, D. Lyon, P. Miller and S.F. Zwinger. 2010. Organic grain production in the U.S. Great Plains: Challenges and opportunities. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 31-Nov. 4, 2010 Long Beach, CA. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2010am/webprogram/Paper57731.html [verified Jan 4, 2011]
• McCauley, A., C. Jones and P. Miller. 2010. Nitrogen fixation by legume green manures: Effects of species and termination time. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 31-Nov. 4, 2010 Long Beach, CA. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2010am/webprogram/Person282998.htmlCD-R OM [verified Nov 15, 2010]
• Miller, P., M. Burgess, J. ODea and C. Jones. 2010. Organic lessons for conventional Ag in wheat-fallow Montana: Do green manures make agronomic sense [abstract] Canadian Soc. Agronomy annual meeting, June 21-23, Saskatoon, SK
• Miller, P., and J. Holmes. 2010. Does winter canola have a viable fit in Montana [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 31-Nov. 4, 2010 Long Beach, CA. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2010am/webprogram/Person58920.htmlCD-RO M [verified Nov 15, 2010]
• ODea, J., P. Miller, C. Jones and M. Burgess. 2010. Greening summerfallow: On-farm evaluation of legume green fallow rotations. [abstract] ASA-CSSA-SSSA Annual Meeting. Oct 31-Nov. 4, 2010 Long Beach, CA. http://a-c-s.confex.com/crops/2010am/webprogram/Person59908.htmlCD-RO M [verified Nov 15, 2010]

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In 2009 near Bozeman, MT, two long-term cropping systems studies were continued, one focused on crop diversity and the other on soil carbon. This research aims to intensify fallow-wheat systems in an energetically and economically sensible manner. The crop diversity rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, split in high and low input management scenarios. 2009 represented yr-1 of the 3rd 4-yr crop cycle. Barley, canola, corn, grasspea, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), safflower, sweet clover, sunflower, triticale (spring and winter), and wheat (spring and winter) have been grown in this study. July 2009 broke a 10-yr pattern of summer drought, with the receipt of nearly double the average rainfall coupled with average temperatures. Consequently, canola outyielded drought-tolerant safflower for the first time in this study; 2,730 vs 2,000 kg/ha. Reducing fertilizer N to half recommended rates for spring canola, flax, and sunflower reduced crop biomass, seed yield, seed oil yield, and water-use-efficiency by 21-25%. Thus, in 2009 full recommended rates of N were important to optimize oilseed yields. The annual weed community census included 26,782 individuals spanning 24 different species, with five accounting for 92% of total weeds; prickly lettuce (34%), volunteer cereal (24%), pennycress (19%), wild oat (8%), and downy brome (7%). The increase in prickly lettuce was notable and problematic. Average weed density in the organic system (534/m2) was more than double that of the no-till cropping systems (218/m2), but the organic weed community was represented mainly by non-competitive pennycress (228/m2). Organic lentil yielded 2,060 kg/ha compared with 1,160 kg/ha for no-till lentil. However, creeping (aka Canada) thistle threatens the sustainability of the organic system, requiring abandonment of 3 of 12 organic plots in both crop rotation studies in 2009. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares 4-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till, and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. an oilseed-wheat and various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture. Crop energy budgets for Montana's high protein wheat are highly dependent on fertilizer N; constituting as much as 84% of the total variable energy input in continuous wheat fertilized at recommended rates compared with a national wheat average of 52%. After 6 yr, soil organic matter showed greatest gains in annually cropped compared with fallow - crop systems (542 kg SOC/ha/yr; P<0.01). After 6 yr no difference in SOC was observed between tilled and untilled fallow - wheat systems. These results were disseminated widely at the 6th annual Montana Organic Assoc. conference, two grower meetings organized by the Northern Pulse Growers Assoc., two MAES field days, in multiple curricula at Montana State University including student visits to observe these field studies, live television of PBS program "Montana Ag Live", and via personal contact with agricultural knowledge transfer agents and farmers in and outside of Montana. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. Clain Jones, Soil Nutrient Cycling specialist - collaborator (CDRS) Dr. Dave Buschena, Agricultural Economist - collaborator (CDRS) Dr. Rick Engel, Soil Fertility researcher - collaborator (GGRS) Mr. Jeff Holmes, Research Associate - collaborator Mr. Mac Burgess, Ph.D. Candidate - training on agronomy and crop energy budgets Mr. Thomas Wilson, undergraduate - intern training in agronomy and green manures Ms. Terry Rick, undergraduate instructor Ms. Carol Froseth, undergraduate - cropping systems lab training Montana Wheat and Barley Committee - partial funding TARGET AUDIENCES: Montana State University undergraduate and graduate students to increase knowledge of modern farming systems and crop diversity options. Montana no-till and organic wheat and barley growers to manage farm land more sustainably. MSU Extension and NRCS personnel to advise on crop diversification strategies in no-till and organic systems. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Rotation studies address long term questions related to energy, nitrogen, and water-use-efficiency and soil quality. These studies are providing data for the first measurement of crop energy budgets performed in Montana, especially critical with uncertain energy costs. Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Pulse crops (pea and lentil) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana exceeded 350,000 acres in 2009, due in part to the contributions of this research project. Perry Miller served as a keynote speaker at the inaugural Montana Pulse Day held Feb 2010 in Great Falls, which drew double the anticipated audience (250) indicating further expansion of pulse crop production. This has meant an important new source of income for Montana farmers, and an important tool in improving on-farm energy balance by offsetting N fertilizer. Related to this research, an on-farm phase of crop energy budget research was completed for northeast Montana in 2009 that showed an average wheat yield increase of 40% accompanied by an average fertilizer N reduction of 15 kg/ha compared with continuous wheat systems. Results from the greenhouse gas rotation study is contributing key knowledge about the rates of soil carbon sequestration and nitrous oxide emission, critically underpinning our understanding of the carbon footprint for Montana cropping systems. This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful.

Publications

• Carr, P., N.G. Creamer, K.M. Delate, T.S. Kornecki, P. Miller, S.B. Mirsky, J. Moyer, and P. Mader. 2009. Eliminating tillage in organic farming systems: Progress and obstacles. In Agronomy Abstracts, ASA-CSSA-SSSA Ann. Mtg. 1-5 Nov, 2009. Pittsburgh, PA.
• Feddema, R.P., R. Engel, R. Bricklemyer, P. Miller and R. Wallander. 2009. No-till and continuous cropping system studies in semiarid Montana to measure soil C sequestration. In Agronomy Abstracts, ASA-CSSA-SSSA Ann. Mtg. 1-5 Nov, 2009. Pittsburgh, PA.
• Leisso, R.S., P.R. Miller, and M.E. Burrows. 2009. The influence of biological and fungicidal seed treatments on chickpea (Cicer arietinum) damping off. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 31: 38-46
• Menalled, F., C. Jones, D. Buschena, and P. Miller. 2009. From conventional to organic cropping: What to expect during the transition years. Montana St Univ Ext Serv Montguide MT200901AG. 8 p.
• Miller, P., Engel, R., Burgess, M., and Jones, C. Legume Crops are Greening the Semiarid Northern Great Plains of North America. 16th International Congress on Nitrogen Fixation, 14-19 June, 2009, Big Sky, MT. (abstract - Invited)
• Watts, J.D., R.L. Lawrence, P.R. Miller, and C. Montagne. 2009. Monitoring of cropland practices for carbon sequestration purposes in north central Montana by Landsat remote sensing. Remote Sens. Environ. 113:1843-1852

Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: In 2008 near Bozeman, MT, the 9th year was completed for the crop diversity rotation study and the 6th year of a greenhouse gas rotation study; and investigation of soil residual herbicide effects on broadleaf crops. This research aims to intensify fallow-wheat systems sustainably in an energetically and economically sensible manner. The crop diversity rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, split in high and low input management scenarios, and 2009 effectively represents the start of the 3rd 4-yr crop cycle, newly comparing oilseed-wheat and pulse-wheat no-till systems. Barley, canola, corn, grasspea, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), safflower, sweet clover, sunflower, triticale (spring and winter), and wheat (spring and winter) have been grown in this study. In 2008, a severe hailstorm on July 22 severely damaged grain yields, preventing meaningful data collection. The annual weed community census included 15,100 individuals spanning 20 different species, with five accounting for 84% of total weeds; pennycress (36%), wild oat (17%), prickly lettuce (15%), downy brome (9%), and volunteer cereals (7%). Average weed density in the organic system (356/m2) was double that of the no-till cropping systems (165/m2), but the no-till system had four times the density of problematic grassy weeds (wild oat and downy brome). Weed density in the organic system was due mainly to high pennycress infestations (248/m2) which did not compete strongly with crops. However, Canada thistle threatens the sustainability of the organic system, requiring total abandonment of one in four replicates in both crop rotation studies in 2008. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares simple 2-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till, and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture (simulating CRP). After 2006, soil organic matter showed greatest gains in CRP (675 kg C/ha/yr; P<0.001). Importantly, annually cropped systems gained carbon at an average rate of 250 kg C/ha/yr compared with fallow - crop systems (P = 0.02). Yield loss due to soil-residual sulfonylurea herbicides occurred in all dicot crops planted 42 months after herbicide application. This information has been disseminated widely at agricultural conferences in Montana and North Dakota, in multiple curricula at Montana State University, live television of PBS program "Montana Ag Live", and via personal contact with agricultural knowledge transfer agents and farmers both inside and outside of Montana. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals: Perry Miller, Associate Professor is the Principal Investigator for this project and assumes ultimate responsibility for project direction, design, and implementation. Jeffrey Holmes is a Research Associate whose salary is about 80% aligned with this project. Mr. Holmes provides crucial foundational support for this project by conducting/overseeing soil and plant sampling and all field operations; by collecting, processing, and analyzing field and laboratory data; and by managing undergraduate and graduate students in addition to other temporary workers hired through other funding sources. Partner organizations: The Montana Wheat and Barley Committee (MWBC) have provided very modest funding ($8 - 12K/yr) for the past five years to enable complete engagement of operations in this project. The MWBC is the funding arm of a crucial constituent for this research project, the Montana Grain Growers Association. Collaborators: Collaborators and their roles are listed with this project but since they receive no salary from this AES project I'm unsure what further reporting is desired, especially since they are likely self-reporting on their own AES projects. Training/Professional Development: At least one MSU undergraduate class per year schedules a field trip to visit the long-term rotation studies. TARGET AUDIENCES: The target audience for this cropping systems project is broad because of its emphasis on sustainable agriculture. It includes both mainstream no-till farmers and organic farmers. This research holds a special emphasis on annual legumes or 'pulse' crops such as pea and lentil, and so results have been presented at agricultural conferences throughout the northern Great Plains. In some part the recent surge in pea and lentil acreage in Montana and North Dakota is a change in farming condition resulting from this project. Visitors to the long-term cropping systems studies have ranged from Montana farmers to U.S. Department of State sponsored international delegations. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Rotation studies address long term questions related to resource use efficiency and soil quality. These studies are providing data for the first measurement of crop energy budgets performed in Montana, especially critical with uncertain energy costs. Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Pulse crops (pea, lentil, chickpea) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana exceeded 300,000 acres in 2008 despite very high wheat prices, due in part to the contributions of this research project. This has meant an important new source of income for Montana farmers, and an important tool in improving on-farm energy balance by offsetting N fertilizer. An on-farm phase of crop energy budget research was initiated in 2008 to quantify this aspect at the field scale. Results from the greenhouse gas rotation study is contributing key knowledge about the rates of soil carbon sequestration and nitrous oxide emission, critically underpinning soil C credit markets. This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful.

Publications

• Buteler, M., D.K. Weaver, and P.R. Miller. 2008. Wheat stem sawfly infested plants benefit from parasitism of the herbivorous larvae. Agric. Forest Entomol. 10: 347-354
• Miller, P., D. Wichman, and R. Engel. 2008. Nitrogen cycling from pea forage to wheat in no-till systems. Montana Fertilizer Fact No. 51. 2 p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/FertilizerFacts/]
• Watts, J.D. 2008. Satellite monitoring of cropland-related carbon sequestration practices in north central Montana. M.S. thesis, Montana State Univ., Bozeman, MT. 180 p. (Committee member)
• Dusenbury, M.P., R.E. Engel, P.R. Miller, R.L. Lemke, and R. Wallander. 2008. Nitrous oxide emissions from a northern Great Plains soil as influenced by N management and cropping systems. J. Environ. Qual. 37: 542-550. [Invited]
• Engel, R., D. Liang, P. Miller, and R. Wallander. 2008. Effect of granular urea placement on nitrous oxide production from a silt loam soil. Montana Fertilizer Facts, Number 50. 2p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/FertilizerFacts/]
• Miller, P.R., D.E. Buschena, C.A. Jones, and J.A. Holmes. 2008. Transition from intensive tillage to no-till and organic diversified annual grain cropping systems: Agronomic, economic, and soil nutrient analyses. Agron J. 100: 591-599.

Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
OUTPUTS: The generalized output of this research project is shared knowledge about the role of crop diversification in promoting sustainable agriculture in the northern Great Plains. Aside from formal publications aimed at colleagues and agricultural practitioners listed separately below, this was accomplished with a combination of on-campus and on-farm visits, direct extension to knowledge brokers and users at key agricultural conferences, formal course materials in on-line and classroom settings, and various popular media. In 2007, on-site visits included: 1) official delegation researching the use of biotechnology in the USA, consisting of high ranking agricultural officials from 10 - 20 European countries as hosted by the U.S. Department of State (assigned role was to address limitations of this technology relative to organic agriculture); 2) Administrative Council of USDA-CSREES Western Region SARE to discuss challenges of funding valuable long-term cropping systems research; 3) addressing more than 600 farmers about pulse crop research at field days in Bozeman, Moccasin (centennial anniversary), and Sidney, MT; and 4) hosting the Executive Director of the Northern Pulse Growers Association. On-farm visits to Big Sandy and Power, MT, shared research results with 125 farmers related to green manure crops in organic systems, and soil carbon sequestration in no-till systems. Knowledge about diversified cropping systems was shared directly with an estimated combined agricultural audience of more than 500 at AERO on-farm energy workshops in Havre and Great Falls, MT; the Direction, Diversity, and Dollars annual conference at Dickinson, ND; the Montana Ag Business Association and the Montana Grain Growers Assoc. annual meetings at Great Falls, MT; the MSU - Extension in-service training, the Montana Fertilizer Advisory, and the Montana Wheat and Barley committee meetings in Bozeman; and the Triangle Pulse Workshops in Cut Bank and Chester, MT. Formal educational outputs included 1) completed M.S. theses (K. Harbuck and E. Izard) on organic agriculture topics; 2) on-line course in sustainable agriculture sponsored by USDA-CSREES Western Region SARE; 3) foundational course materials for LRES 428 Cropping Systems and Sustainable Agriculture and LRES 528 Bridging Principles and Practices of Sustainable Agriculture; and 4) contributed lectures in LRES 110 Land Resources and Environmental Sciences and PS 342 Forages. Communication of research included three panel appearances on Montana Ag Live, a live television show on Montana PBS, live radio interviews, and four print media articles in newspapers or farm magazines in Alberta and Montana. PARTICIPANTS: This project was very excited to add the expertise of Macdonald Burgess, a Ph.D. student with strong background in quantitative energy relationships. In 2007 we partnered with the Alternative Energy Resources Organization (AERO) to interact with farmers regarding on-farm energy topics, in two winter workshops and two on-farm field days. This project continues to enjoy excellent collaboration within LRES (Rick Engel and Clain Jones - greenhouse gas dynamics and soil nutrient status), and meaningful collaboration from Dave Buschena in Ag Economics. TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audience is the farming community of the northern Great Plains and associated agri-industry. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: One major change occurred in 2007, the decision to focus on crop energy budgets. To date we have been largely unsuccessful in obtaining supporting grant funding from CSREES (Western SARE, Managed Ecosystems). Funding constraint could jeopardize our ability to pursue this necessary research direction in an effective and timely fashion.

Impacts
Cropping systems studies (short and long term) enhance knowledge related to efficient resource use strategies and sustained or enhanced soil quality. Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations, since commodity markets are at or above record levels for all crops. Pulse crops (especially pea and lentil) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana exceeded 350,000 ac in 2007, in some part due to the contributions of this research project. The estimated value of the 2007 pulse crop in Montana was $40 million (based on value of 1% first-point-of-sale checkoff receipts of $300,000, and assuming 75% checkoff compliance). However, it is much more difficult to quantify the very long-term benefits to sustaining the soil resource. For example, in northeastern Montana (MLRA 53A) pulse and oilseed crops have reduced soil-detrimental summerfallow acres by at least 400,000 acres over the past 5 yr. It is difficult to quantify the value of preserving and enhancing the foundational resource of soil, upon which current, and especially future, agricultural productivity depends. However, the north central Montana agro-ecozone (MLRA 52) is the largest wheat production area in Montana, and increased fallow acreage by more than 300,000 acres during the same time period due to persistent localized drought. Our current research is heavily focused on developing partial crops that minimize the summerfallow period while enhancing soil quality and sustaining economic viability. Pulse crops represent a very key opportunity to generate a vlauable new source of income for Montana farmers, and an important tool in improving on-farm energy balance by offsetting N fertilizer during the pulse crop production and in the subsequent cereal or oilseed crop. As such, this project will provide data for the first measurement of crop energy budgets performed in Montana, especially critical with record nitrogen fertilizer costs. This research also contributes foundational knowledge about the rates of soil carbon sequestration and nitrous oxide emission, consistent with the emergence of a new economic sector in Montana 18 months ago, and with current federal Farm Bill cross-compliance and environmental enhancement opportunities (i.e. EQIP, CSP). This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful. In the fall of 2006 several farmers planted the first seven commercial fields of winter canola in Montana, with very limited success. However, it appears that several farmers will attempt winter canola again in fall 2008 due to improved knowledge provided by MSU research and farm field observations. Production of oilseeds is highly consistent with current and projected opportunities in food and biofuel markets.

Publications

• Cutforth, H.W., S.M. McGinn, K.E. McPhee, and P.R. Miller. 2007. Adaptation of pulse crops to the changing climate of the northern Great Plains. Agron. J. 99:1684-1699.
• Engel, R., M. Dusenbury, P. Miller, and R. Wallander. 2007. Soil nitrous oxide emissions from a continuous wheat cropping system in Montana. Fertilizer Fact No. 44. 2 p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/FertilizerFacts/]
• Johnston, A.M., G.W. Clayton, and P.R. Miller. 2007. Introduction to Pulse Crop Ecology in North America: Impacts on Environment, Nitrogen Cycle, Soil Biology, Pulse Adaptation, and Human Nutrition. Agron. J. 99:1682-1683.
• Miller, P., D. Buschena, C. Jones, J. Holmes, and M. Burgess. 2007. Changing lessons with winter wheat in an 8-yr-old cropping systems study. In Agronomy Abstracts, ASA-CSSA-SSSA Ann. Mtg., Nov 4 to 8, New Orleans, LA.
• Miller, P., R. Engel, and J. Holmes. 2007. Cropping sequence effect of pea and pea management on spring wheat. Fertilizer Fact No. 45. 2 p. [http://landresources.montana.edu/FertilizerFacts/]
• Walley, F.L., G.W. Clayton, P.R. Miller, P.M. Carr, and G.P. Lafond. 2007. Nitrogen economy of pulse crop production in the northern Great Plains. Agron. J. 99:1710-1718.
• Sciegienka, J.K., F. Menalled, P. Miller, N. Zidack, and S. Blodgett. 2007. Canada thistle growth and physiological response to a pathogen, insect, and herbicide. West. Soc. Weed Sci. Ann. Mtg. Mar 13 to 16, 2007, Portland, OR.

Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06

Outputs
In 2006 at Bozeman a cropping sequence study was completed; a 7th year was completed for the crop diversity rotation study; the 4th year of a greenhouse gas rotation study was completed; and a line of research investigating winter canola production was continued. The cropping sequence study compared annual cropping strategies for the effect on pea forage/feed yield and quality as well as the effect on a subsequent wheat crop. Forage yield varied inconsistently from 1.3 to 8.8 Mg/ha among sites, years, crops, and harvest timing. Forage quality was consistently greater for pea than barley treatments, and especially for winter pea. Spring and winter wheat test crops yielded greatest on winter pea harvested for forage at the flowering stage due to greater soil water conservation, and soil N contribution. This result highlights a valuable management strategy in drought-prone areas. The crop diversity rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, split in high and low input management scenarios. Barley, canola, corn, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), sunflower, triticale (spring and winter) and wheat (spring and winter) appear in one or more rotations. In 2006 winter wheat in the highly diversified system yielded 16% greater than in the alternate-year system; winter cereals yielded 36% greater than their spring counterparts; and barley in the pesticide-free production system yielded 60% greater than organic, and with higher quality grain. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares 2-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture (simulating CRP). Soil organic C and nitrous oxide emissions are the key variables being investigated, using two levels of fertilizer N for wheat production. In 2006, in only 3 of 7 systems was the yield greater at the high N level. The N-use-efficiency was 0.56 at recommended levels of available N, and 0.94 at half rates. These results have strong implications for on farm energy use. Results from 2006 further confirmed that nitrous oxide emissions are strongly linked to fertilizer N application in this environment. Soil carbon has accumulated most rapidly in the continuously cropped systems. A winter canola study was initiated that related the importance of fall irrigation, and various agronomic factors to winter canola survival and productivity. Due to timely fall rain in Sep 2005, winter canola yields did not vary importantly among fall irrigation treatments in 2006.

Impacts
Rotation studies address longer term questions related to resource use efficiency and soil quality. These studies are contributing knowledge about the rates of soil carbon sequestration and nitrous oxide emission. Additionally they are raising important questions about energy use efficiency with respect to nitrogen fertilizer and tillage system. Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Pulse crops (pea, lentil, chickpea) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana approached 400,000 acres in 2006, due in part to the contributions of this research project. This has meant an important new source of income for Montana farmers, and an important tool in improving on-farm energy balance. This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful. In the fall of 2006 several farmers planted the first commercial fields of winter canola in Montana, a direct result from this research project.

Publications

• Miller, P.R., R.E. Engel and J.A. Holmes. 2006. Cropping sequence effect of pea and pea management on spring wheat in the northern Great Plains. Agron. J. 98:1610-1619.
• Miller, P., and D. Johnson. 2006. Strategies for high yielding winter canola in the Rocky Mountain region. In Agronomy Abstracts, ASA-CSSA-SSSA Ann. Mtg., Nov 12-16, 2006. Indianapolis, IN.
• Pollnac, F. 2006. Diversity, spatial patterns, and potential effects of competition in conventional no-tillage and organically managed spring wheat systems in Montana. M.S. thesis, Montana State Univ., Bozeman, MT.
• Dusenbury, M.P. 2006. Nitrous oxide emission from a northern Great Plains soil as influenced by nitrogen fertilization and cropping systems. M.S. thesis. Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 138 p.
• Engel, R., M. Dusenbury, P. Miller, R. Wallander, R. Lemke. 2006. Nitrous oxide emissions in the Northern Great Plains as influenced by cropping systems and N fertility. Proc. Workshop on Agricultural Air Quality: State of the Science. June 5-8 Bolger Conf. Center, Potomac, MD. [Invited]
• Holman, J., A. Bussan, P. Miller, and B. Maxwell. 2006. Spring wheat, canola, and sunflower effects on Persian darnel (Lolium persicum) fecundity. Weed Tech. 20:430-437.
• Miller, P.R. 2006. Pursuing sustainable agriculture from an agronomists view. Presented in symposium - Beyond labeling: comparing the sustainability of conventional and certified alternative farming systems, Ecological Society of America ann. mtg., Aug 5-11, 2006, Memphis, TN [Invited]
• Miller, P. 2006. Crop sequence effects on water and nitrogen: Getting to the root of the matter. p. 5-18 In Proc. 13th Ann. Reduced Tillage Conf., Southern Alberta Conserv. Assoc., Dec 5-6, 2006, Medicine Hat, AB. Miller, P.R., D.E. Buschena, C.A. Jones, R.G. Smith, and A.G. Hulting. 2006. Agroeconomic analyses of organic and no-till diversified cropping systems in the northern Great Plains. In Abstracts, Ecological Society of America, Aug 6-11, 2006, Memphis, TN.
• Miller, P.R., S.A. Brandt, C.L. McDonald and J. Waddington. 2006. Chickpea, lentil and pea response to delayed spring seeding on the Northern Great Plains. Can. J. Plant Sci. 86:1059-1070.
• Bricklemyer, R.S., and P.R. Miller. 2006. Terrestrial carbon sequestration in north central Montana cropland. In Agronomy Abstracts, ASA-CSSA-SSSA Ann. Mtg., Nov 12-16, 2006. Indianapolis, IN.
• Bricklemyer, R.S., P. Miller, R. Engel, D. Brown, R. Lawrence, and J. Fessenden. 2006. Terrestrial carbon sequestration in Montana agricultural systems. 18th Ann. Saskatchewan Soil Conserv. Assoc. Meeting. Feb 15-16, 2006. Regina, Sask., CANADA
• Chen, C., P. Miller, F. Muehlbauer, K.Neill, D. Wichman, and K. McPhee. 2006. Winter pea and lentil response to seeding date and micro- and macro-environments. Agron. J. 98:1655-1663. Cochran, V., J. Danielson, R. Kolberg, and P. Miller. Dryland cropping in the Canadian prairies and the U.S. northern Great Plains. p. 293-339, In G.A. Peterson, P.W. Unger, and W.A. Payne (eds.) Dryland Agriculture, Agronomy Monograph No. 23, 2nd ed., ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.

Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05

Outputs
In 2005 at Bozeman a cropping sequence study was continued, a 6th year was completed for the crop diversity rotation study, and the 3nd year of a greenhouse gas rotation study. A new line of research investigating winter canola was initiated. The cropping sequence study compared annual cropping strategies for the effect on forage/feed yield and quality as well as the effect on a subsequent wheat crop. Forage yield varied from 1.3 to 8.8 Mg/ha among years, crops and harvest timing. Forage quality was consistently greater for pea than barley treatments. Winter and spring pea did not differ importantly in forage yield or quality. The spring wheat test crop yielded greatest on winter pea harvested for forage at the flowering stage due to greater soil water conservation, highlighting the value of this management strategy in drought prone areas. The crop diversity rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, split in high and low input management scenarios. Barley, canola, corn, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), sunflower, triticale (spring and winter) and wheat (spring and winter) appear in one or more rotations. In 2005 the high input strategy outyielded the low input strategy in all but one comparison, by an average of 24%. Sunflower continued to show a strong yield advantage over canola (2.56 vs 1.41 Mg/ha), marking the third time in five years that this has occurred. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares 2-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture (simulating CRP). Soil organic C and nitrous oxide emissions are the key variables being investigated, using three rates of fertilizer N for wheat production. Within the continuous wheat system, spring wheat continued to yield optimally at moderate fertilizer N levels indicating the need for greater research in wheat N response in continuous cropping systems. Results from 2005 confirmed that nitrous oxide emissions are strongly linked to fertilizer N application in this environment. Nitrous oxide emission rates have averaged about one-fourth of the IPCC default coefficient of 1.25% of fertilizer N. A winter canola study was initiated that investigated the relative importance of fall irrigation, rate of seeding and tillage systems to winter canola survival and productivity.

Impacts
Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Pulse crops (pea, lentil, chickpea) are featured prominently in this research project and pulse crop acreage in Montana jumped dramatically to 350,000 acres in 2005, due in part to the contributions of this research project. This has meant an important new source of income for Montana farmers. This research project continues to investigate optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful. Rotation studies address longer term questions related to water use efficiency and soil quality.

Publications

• Miller, P., K. McKay, C. Jones, S. Blodgett, F. Menalled, J. Riesselman, C. Chen and D. Wichman . 2005. Growing dry pea in Montana. Montana St Univ Ext Serv Montguide MT200502 AG. 8 p.
• Miller, P., D. Wichman and R. Engel. 2005. Sequencing annual legume forage before wheat to increase water use efficiency in no till systems in the northern Great Plains. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Nielsen, D.C., P.W. Unger and P.R. Miller. 2005. Efficient water use in dryland cropping systems in the Great Plains. Agron. J. 97: 364 372.
• Walley, F.L. G. Clayton, P. Miller, P.M. Carr, and G. Lafond. 2005. Nitrogen economy of pulse crop production in the northern Great Plains. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Wichman, D., K. Neill, C. Chen, J. Eckhoff, G. Jackson, K. Kephart, M. Westcott, D. Johnson, G. Carlson, and P. Miller. 2005. Montana State University evaluation of spring and winter pulse crop production potential in Montana. Crop Sci. Soc. Am. Summer Mtg., Bozeman, MT, 19-22 June. Abstract on CD-Rom.
• Dusenbury, M.P., R. Engel, P. Miller, and R. Lemke. 2005. Nitrous oxide emissions from cropping systems adapted for the northern Great Plains. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI. Dusenbury, M.P., R.E. Engel, P. Miller, R. Lemke. 2005. Soil nitrous oxide emissions as influenced by fertilization and cropping systems in the northern Great Plains. Crop Sci. Soc. Am. Summer Mtg., Bozeman, MT, 19-22 June. Abstract on CD-Rom.
• Engel, R. M. Dusenbury, P. Miller, and R. Lemke. 2005. A first check of nitrous oxide emissions under cropping systems adapted for the Northern Great Plains. P 25 31. In B. Stevens (ed.) Proc. Western Nutrient Management Conf. 3 4 March 2005. Salt Lake City, UT
• Bricklemyer, R.S., P.R. Miller, K. Paustian, T. Keck, G.A. Nielsen, and J.M. Antle. 2005. Soil organic carbon variability and sampling optimization in Montana dryland wheat fields. J. Soil Water Conserv. 60:42-51
• Brown, D.J., R.S. Bricklemyer, and P. Miller. 2005. Validation requirements for diffuse reflectance soil characterization models with a case study of VNIR soil C prediction in Montana. Geoderma. 129: 251-267
• Clayton, G., P. Miller, Y. Gan, R. Blackshaw, P. Carr, B. Gossen, K.N. Harker, G. Lafond, J. O'Donovan, O. Olfert. 2005. Ecological pulse crop management. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Dusenbury, M.P, R.E. Engel, P. Miller and R. Lemke. 2005. Nitrous oxide emission from soils under cropping systems adapted for the semi arid Northern Great Plains. p. 88. In 3rd USDA Symposium on Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Sequestration in Agriculture and Forestry. 21 24 March, 2005. Baltimore, MD.
• Holman, J.D., A.J. Bussan, B.D. Maxwell, P.R. Miller and J.A. Mickelson. 2005. Spring wheat, canola, and sunflower response to persian darnel (Lolium persicum) interference. Weed Tech. 18:509-520
• Jones, C.A. and P.R. Miller. 2005. Soil fertility differences in diversified no till and organic rotations following a 4 yr transition. In W.B. Stevens (ed.) Western Nutrient Management Conference Proceedings. 6:94 99. Potash and Phosphate Institute. Brookings, SD.
• Meers, S.B. 2005. Impact of harvest operations on parasitism of the wheat stem sawfly, Cephus cinctus Norton (Hymenoptera: Cephidae). M.S. thesis. Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 129 p.
• Miller, P.R., and J.A. Holmes. 2005. Cropping sequence effects of four broadleaf crops on four cereal crops in the northern Great Plains. Agron. J. 97:189-200
• Miller, P., J. Holmes, D. Buschena, and C. Jones. 2005. Comparing low and high input strategies in diversified organic and no till cropping systems. Crop Sci. Soc. Am. Summer Mtg., Bozeman, MT, 19-22 June. Abstract on CD-Rom.

Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04

Outputs
In 2004 at Bozeman one agronomic study was continued, a 5th year was completed for the crop diversity rotation study, and the 2nd year of a greenhouse gas rotation study was initiated. The agronomy study compared seeding date influence on chickpea growth, productivity and grain quality. Four chickpea cultivars representing the full range of commercial grain classes from large kabuli to small desi types, were sown at 5 seeding dates in chem fallow and wheat stubble crop scenarios. Further, one kabuli type chickpea was grown at 5 seeding dates and 5 seeding rates to explore the influence of stand density on crop developmental pace and productivity. After three years the effect of delayed seeding on chickpea yield has shown a yield decrease but at a slower rate than for dry pea or spring wheat. Plant populations ranging from 120,000 to 760,000 plants per hectare delayed plant development, and reduced seed yield only at the lowest plant population. The crop diversity rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations, split in high and low input management scenarios beginning in 2004. Barley, canola, corn, lentil, mustard, pea (spring and winter), sunflower, triticale (spring and winter) and wheat (spring and winter) appear in one or more rotations. The first 4-yr cycle of the rotation study was completed in 2003. Crop-year precipitation averaged 343 mm/yr, ranging from 76 to 89 mm less than the long-term average. During 2001-03, sunflower yields averaged 1900 kg/ha compared with 1190 kg/ha for canola. Soil water extraction 2001-03 showed that sunflower consistently extracted the greatest, and pea the least, soil water to a 1.8-m depth. Yields of pea and winter wheat one and two years following sunflower, respectively, were reduced compared to that following wheat. During this transition period, the organic rotation has performed well, with high winter wheat yields and consistently high grain test weight. Wild oat densities are least in the organic and highly diverse no-till rotations. The greenhouse gas rotation study compares 2-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture (simulating CRP). Soil organic C and nitrous oxide emissions are the key variables being investigated, using three rates of fertilizer N for wheat production. Results from 2004 showed nitrous oxide emission rates nearly an order of magnitude less than the IPCC default coefficient of 1.25%

Impacts
Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. This research investigates optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful. Rotation studies address longer term questions related to water use efficiency and soil quality.

Publications

• Gossen, B.D., and P.R. Miller. 2004. Survival of Ascochyta rabiei in chickpea residue on the Canadian Prairies. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 26:142-147.
• Johnson, E.N., P.R. Miller, R.E. Blackshaw, Y.T. Gan, K.N. Harker, G.W. Clayton, K.D. Kephart, D.M. Wichman, K.Topinka and K.J. Kirkland. 2004. Seeding date and polymer seed coating effects on plant establishment and yield of fall-seeded canola in the northern Great Plains. Can. J. Plant Sci. 84:955-963.
• Bricklemyer, R.S., R.L. Lawrence, and P.R. Miller. 2004. Analysis of Landsat ETM+ imagery for monitoring management practices that influence soil C sequestration in north central Montana. Proc. Am. Soc. Photogram. Remote Sensing Conf., 70th, Denver, CO. 23-28 May. Abstract.
• Bricklemyer, R.S., Miller, P.R., Keck, T.J., and Paustian, K. 2004. Soil texture effects on soil C sequestration rates in north central Montana. Canadian Soc. Agron. Annual Meeting. 20 July. Edmonton, AB, Canada. Abstract.
• Jones, C.A., P.R. Miller, and J.S. Jacobsen. 2004. Soil fertility status after a 4-yr transition period to organic and diversified no-till systems. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Miller, P., Engel, R., and R. Bricklemyer. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration in agriculture: farm management practices can affect greenhouse gas emissions. Montana St Univ Ext Serv Montguide MT200404 AG. 2 p.
• Miller, P.R., K.E. McPhee, C. Chen, F.J. Muehlbauer and D.M. Wichman. 2004. Winter lentil and pea management in Montana, Idaho and Washington. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Perez, O.G., D.K. Weaver, P.R. Miller, and W.L. Morrill. 2004. Spatial distribution of volatiles produced by wheat plants infested with wheat stem sawfly Cephus cinctus (Hymenoptera: Cephidae), and of topically applied chemicals to healthy wheat plants. Entomol. Soc. America. Ann. Mtg. Abstract.
• Van Wychen, L.R., B.D. Maxwell, A.J. Bussan, P.R. Miller, and J.M. Wraith. 2004. Response of wild oat growth, biomass partitioning, and fecundity at a range of soil matric potentials. Weed Sci. 52:352-358.

Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03

Outputs
In 2003 at Bozeman two agronomic studies were continued, a 4th year was completed for the crop diversity rotation study, and a new greenhouse gas rotation study was initiated. The first agronomy study compares productivity of winter and spring types of pea and lentil as influenced by stubble height, fall seeding date, seeding rate, and cultivar, in no-till continuous crop systems. After two years, no yield advantage has been attributed to winter growth habit. Stubble height effects on winter pulse survival and yield have been inconsistent. Mid-September seeding dates were critical for establishment in 2002 and increased winter pulse yields markedly. Optimal seeding rates for winter pulses range from 100 to 150% of spring pulse recommendations, depending on the rate of winter survival. Results from this study were important in supporting commercial releases of the first winter cultivars of lentil (Morton) and pea (Spectre) for 2004. The second agronomy study compared seeding date influence on chickpea growth, productivity and grain quality. Four chickpea cultivars representing the full range of commercial grain classes from large kabuli to small desi types, were sown at 4-5 seeding dates in chem fallow and wheat stubble crop scenarios. Further, one kabuli type chickpea was grown at 4-5 seeding dates and 4-5 seeding rates to explore the influence of stand density on crop developmental pace and productivity. After two years the effect of delayed seeding on chickpea yield has been inconsistent and must await additional data. Plant populations ranging from 130,000 to 760,000 plants per hectare had no effect on chickpea developmental rates or seed yield. The 2000 crop rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations. Barley, canola, corn, lentil, pea (spring and winter), sunflower and wheat (spring and winter) appear in one or more rotations. The first 4-yr cycle of the rotation study was completed in 2003. Crop-year precipitation has averaged 343 mm/yr, ranging from 76 to 89 mm less than the long-term average during 2000-03. During 2001-03, sunflower yields averaged 1900 kg/ha compared with 1190 kg/ha for canola. Soil water extraction 2001-03 showed that sunflower consistently extracted the greatest, and pea the least, soil water to a 1.8-m depth. Yields of pea and winter wheat one and two years following sunflower, respectively, were reduced compared to that following wheat. During this transition period, the organic rotation has performed well. Wild oat densities are least in the organic and highly diverse no-till rotations. The 2003 rotation study compares 2-yr systems, including conventional tillage, no-till and organic; crop-fallow vs. continuous crop; continuous wheat vs. various pea-wheat systems; and a perennial grass-alfalfa mixture (simulating CRP). Soil organic C and nitrous oxide emissions are the key variables being investigated, using three rates of fertilizer N for wheat production.

Impacts
Evaluation surveys of recent farm conferences in Montana highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. This research investigates optimal agronomic practices for alternative crops so inclusion in cropping systems will have a greater chance of being successful. Rotation studies address longer term questions related to water use efficiency and soil quality.

Publications

• Angadi, S., H. Cutforth, B. McConkey, K. Volkmar, M. Entz, S. Brandt, D. Ulrich, P. Miller. 2003. Water relations of pulse, oilseed and cereal crops under semiarid conditions on the Northern Great Plains. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
• Angadi, S.V., Y. Gan, P.R. Miller, B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner, and C.L. McDonald. 2003. Water use and water use efficiency of field pea and chickpea under the semiarid Canadian prairie conditions. In Proc. (CD-ROM) Soils and Crops Workshop, Univ. of Sask., Saskatoon, Canada.
• Bricklemyer, R.S. 2003. Sensitivity of the Century model for estimating sequestered soil carbon using coarse- and fine-scale map data sources in north central Montana. M.S. thesis. Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 136 p.
• Gan, Y., P.R. Miller, B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner, P.H. Liu and C.L. McDonald. 2003. Optimum plant population density for chickpea and dry pea in a semiarid environment. Can. J. Plant Sci. 83: 1-9
• Gan, Y.T., P.R. Miller, B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner, F.C. Stevenson, and C.L. McDonald. 2003. Diverse cropping sequences vs. durum yield and protein in the semiarid northern Great Plains. Agron. J. 95: 245-252
• Gan, Y.T., P.R. Miller and C.L. McDonald. 2003. Response of kabuli chickpea to seed size and planting depth. Can. J. Plant Sci. 83: 39-46
• Hulting, A.G., P.R. Miller, P.R., and B.D. Maxwell. 2003. Weed population dynamics in the transition period from conventional to organic cropping systems in the Northern Great Plains. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts, ASA, Madison, WI.
• McConkey, B.G., F. Selles, P. Miller and C. Campbell. 2003. Yield and protein of wheat and durum in Brown soil zone as affected by long-term tillage system and crop rotation. In Proc. (CD-ROM) Soils and Crops Workshop, Univ. of Sask., Saskatoon, Canada. McConkey, B.G., D. Steinley, B. Nybo, P.R. Miller, J. McConnell, S. Anderson, K. Heil, and R. Oystryk. 2003. Response of cereals to fertilizer N on pulse and other stubbles. In Proc. (CD-ROM) Soils and Crops Workshop, Univ. of Sask., Saskatoon, Canada.
• Miller, P.R., S.V. Angadi, G.L. Androsoff, B.G. McConkey, C.L. McDonald, S.A. Brandt, H.W. Cutforth, M.H. Entz and K.M. Volkmar. 2003. Comparing Brassica oilseed crop productivity under contrasting N fertility regimes in the semiarid northern Great Plains. Can. J. Plant Sci. 83:489-497.
• Miller, P.R., and D. Buschena. 2003. Agroeconomic analyses of the transition period to organic and no-till diversified cropping systems in the Northern Great Plains. In (CD-ROM) Agronomy Abstracts, ASA, Madison, WI.
• Miller, P.R., Y. Gan, B.G. McConkey and C.L. McDonald. 2003. Pulse crops for the northern Great Plains. 1. Grain productivity and residual effects on soil water and N. Agron. J. 95: 972-979.
• Miller, P.R., Y. Gan, B.G. McConkey and C.L. McDonald. 2003. Pulse crops for the northern Great Plains. 2. Cropping sequence effects on cereal, oilseed and pulse crops. Agron. J. 95: 980-986.
• Miller, P.R., B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner, C.A. Campbell, and V.L. Cochran. 2003. Flexible Cropping Systems in the semiarid Northern Great Plains. p. 87-104 In J.D. Hanson and J.M. Krupinsky (eds.), Proc. Dynamic Cropping Systems: Principles, Processes and Challenges. Bismarck, ND.

Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02

Outputs
In 2002 two agronomic studies were initiated in Montana and the third year completed for a crop rotation study at Bozeman. The first agronomy study compares productivity of winter and spring types of pea and lentil as influenced by stubble height, fall seeding date, and cultivar, in no-till continuous crop systems. Also, four seeding rates were compared. The study has four locations, including two in Montana and one each in Idaho and Washington. The first year's data showed large yield advantages to winter growth habits in Idaho and Washington, but not in Montana. Tall stubble increased pulse productivity only at one Montana location, for both winter and spring types. Early fall seeding dates increased pulse productivity in Idaho and Washington but not in Montana. 2002 weather patterns in Montana were abnormal with drought occurring in early summer followed by rainfall after mid-July. This pattern may have provided an unusual advantage to spring-sown pulses so we will await 2003 data before drawing preliminary conclusions. Seeding rates equal to recommendations for spring types were optimal. The second agronomy study compared seeding date influence on chickpea growth, productivity and grain quality. The study has one location in Montana and two in North Dakota. Four chickpea cultivars representing the full range of commercial grain classes from large kabuli to desi types, were sown at four seeding dates in both chem fallow and wheat stubble crop scenarios. Further, one kabuli type chickpea was grown at four seeding dates and four seeding rates to explore the influence of stand density on crop developmental pace and productivity. Delaying seeding up to 6 wk had no influence on chickpea growth, productivity, or grain quality in Montana, despite causing large yield decreases in dry pea and spring wheat controls. In North Dakota, chickpea yield was decreased markedly by delaying seeding 6 wk, but not 2 wk. Plant populations ranging from 220,000 to 760,000 plants per hectare had no significant affect on chickpea developmental rates or seed yield. The crop rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations. Barley, canola, corn, dry pea (spring and winter), lentil, sunflower and wheat (spring and winter) appear in one or more rotations. The first 4-yr cycle of the crop rotation study will be complete in 2003 and conclusions about the transition phase from conventional to no-till and organic systems will be drawn after 2003. In 2002, an ideal opportunity to measure effective rooting depth showed sunflower extracted the greatest soil water to a 1.8-m depth and dry pea extracted the least. This was the first observation for water use of corn in dryland Montana and it appeared similar to spring and winter wheat. Canola soil water extraction was much less than in 2001, perhaps indicating plasticity in its rooting response. 2002 was the first year where significant rainfall occurred in late summer, which aided production of the two warm-season crops, corn and sunflower. Sunflower yields have been large and consistent in this study, outpacing canola yields by 33 to 67% in 2002.

Impacts
Northern Plains producers remain interested in the economic value of diversifying dryland cropping systems to include oilseed and pulse crops in sequence with cereal crops. Evaluation surveys of recent conferences highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. It is critical that optimal agronomic practices are known prior to inclusion in cropping systems research.

Publications

• McConkey, B., P. Miller, S. Angadi, and Y.T. Gan. 2002. Designing the cropping system with the right water intensity. p. 70-81. In Proc. Soils and Crops Workshop 2002, Univ. of Sask., Saskatoon, Canada. CD-ROM.
• McConkey, B.G. D. Steinley, B. Nybo, P. Miller, and J. McConnell. 2002. Response of cereals to fertilizer N on pulse and other stubbles (abs). In 4th Canadian Pulse Research Workshop, Edmonton, Canada, Dec 8-10.
• Bricklemyer, R.S., P.R. Miller, T.J. Keck, K. Paustian, G.A. Nielsen, J.M. Antle. 2002. Soil organic carbon sampling variability in dryland wheat fields in north central Montana: A baseline for sensitivity analysis of the CENTURY model. p 81. In Proc. Can. Soc. Soil Sci. Ann. Mtg., Banff, Canada, 18-21 May.
• Bricklemyer, R.S., P.R. Miller, K.H. Paustian, T.J. Keck, J.M. Antle and G.A. Nielsen. 2002. Sensitivity of the CENTURY model for estimating sequestered soil carbon due to the adoption of no-till management in north central Montana using coarse- and fine-scale map data sources. In Agronomy Abstracts, ASA, Madison, WI.
• Cutforth, H.W., B.G. McConkey, D. Ulrich, P.R. Miller and S.V. Angadi. 2002. Yield and water use efficiency of pulses seeded directly into standing stubble in the semiarid Canadian prairie. Can. J. Plant Sci. 82:681-686.
• Cutforth, H., B. McConkey, D. Ulrich, P. Miller and S. Angadi. 2002. Chickpea, field pea, lentil yields when direct-seeded into standing stubble in the semiarid prairie of southwestern Saskatchewan. In Proc. Soils and Crops Workshop, Univ. of Sask., Saskatoon, Canada. CD ROM.
• Gan, Y.T., P.R. Miller, P.H. Liu, F.C. Stevenson and C.L. McDonald. 2002. Seedling emergence, pod development, and seed yields of chickpea and dry pea in a semiarid environment. Can. J. Plant Sci. 82:531-537
• Gan, Y.T., P.R. Miller, B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner and C.L. McDonald. 2002. Field pea, kabuli, and desi chickpea respond differently to plant population density. p.317-320. In Proc. 4th Can. Pulse Res. Workshop, Edmonton, Canada.
• Gan, Y., P.R. Miller, B.G. McConkey, R.P. Zentner and C.L. McDonald. 2002. Optimum plant population density for chickpea in a semiarid environment. In Proc. Soils and Crops Workshop 2002, Univ. of Sask., Saskatoon, Canada. CD-ROM.
• Holman, J. D., A. J. Bussan, B. D. Maxwell, P. R. Miller, and J. A. Mickelson. 2002. Persian darnel impacts on crop quality and adjusted gross return. Proc. Western Soc. Weed Sci. 55:23.
• Holman, J. D., A. J. Bussan, B. D. Maxwell, P. R. Miller, and J. A. Mickelson. 2002. Spring wheat, canola and sunflower response to Persiandarnel (Lolium persicum) interference. Proc. Weed Sci. Soc. Am. 42:185
• Johnston, A.M., D.L.Tanaka, S.A. Brandt, D.C. Nielsen, G.P. Lafond, P.R. Miller and N.L. Riveland. 2002. Oilseed crops for semiarid rotations in the northern Great Plains. Agronomy J. 94: 231-240.
• Kutcher, H.R., G. Lafond, A.M. Johnston, P.R. Miller, K.S. Gill, W.E. May, T. Hogg, E. Johnson, V.O. Biederbeck and B. Nybo. 2002. Rhizobium inoculant and seed-applied fungicide effects on field pea production. Can. J. Plant Sci. 82:645-651.
• McConnell, J.T., P.R. Miller, R.L. Lawrence, R.E. Engel and G.A. Nielsen. 2002. Managing inoculation failure of field pea and chickpea based on spectral responses. Can. J. Plant Sci. 82: 273-282.
• Miller, P.R., R.E. Engel and J.A. Holmes. 2002. Cropping sequence effect of wheat after dry pea harvested as forage and grain. In Agronomy Abstracts, ASA, Madison, WI. CD-ROM.
• Miller, P.R., B.G. McConkey, G.W. Clayton, S.A. Brandt, J.A. Staricka, A.M. Johnston, G.P. Lafond, B.G. Schatz, D.D. Baltensperger and K.E. Neill. 2002. Pulse crop adaptation in the northern great plains. Agron. J. 94: 261-272.
• Miller, P., K. McKay, B. Jenks, J. Riesselman, K. Neill, D. Buschena and AJ Bussan. 2002. Growing chickpea in the northern Great Plains. Ext. Serv. MontGuide MT 200204AG. Montana State Univ., Bozeman.
• Miller, P.R., J. Waddington, C.L. McDonald and D.A. Derksen. 2002. Wheat yield and quality when grown on the stubble of eight crops on the semiarid northern Plains. Can. J. Plant Sci. 82: 307-318.
• Runyon, J.B., W.L. Morrill, D.K. Weaver and P.R. Miller. 2002. Parasitism of the wheat stem sawfly (Hymenoptera: Cephidae) by Bracon cephi and B. lissogaster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) in wheat fields bordering tilled and untilled fallow in Montana. J. Econ. Entomol. 95: 1130-1134.
• Zentner, R.P., D.D. Wall, D.G. Smith, D.L. Young, P.R. Miller, C.A. Campbell, G.P. Lafond, S.A. Brandt and A.M. Johnston. 2002. Economics of crop diversification opportunities for the northern Great Plains. Agronomy J. 94: 216-230
• Bricklemyer, R.S., R.L. Lawrence and P.R. Miller. 2002. Documenting no-till and conventional till practices using Landsat ETM+ imagery and logistic regression. J. Soil Water Conserv. 57:267-271

Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01

Outputs
In 2001 two no-till cropping sequence studies were completed at multiple dryland sites in Montana and a crop rotation study at Bozeman completed the third year. The first cropping sequence study investigated the effects of cool- and warm-season cereal, oilseed and pulse crops on four subsequent cereal crops (spring and winter wheat, durum, barley). Each alternative crop, except proso millet, provided equal or higher potential gross returns than wheat at one or more sites. This indicates that crop diversification is an important strategy for managing risk. Dry pea and flax caused comparatively high yields for the cereal test crops, due to greater conservation of soil water, while sunflower caused the lowest yields due to low soil available water. Dry pea used less soil water than wheat, sunflower and chickpea below 60 cm, but a lack of crop residues following pea limited overwinter soil water recharge. During wetter than normal crop years, recropped cereal yields exceeded 80% of fallow yields, but wheat stubble caused lower cereal test crop yields than that grown on dry pea or flax stubbles, due to pest-related yield loss. During drier than normal crop years, recropped cereal yields were less than 40% of that on fallow and were not economic on any crop stubble. The four cereal test crops generally responded alike to crop sequence effects. The second cropping sequence study compared different crop management strategies (green forage, green fallow, grain harvest, residue removal) for N and non-N rotational benefits to spring wheat. This research highlighted the potential value of including short cycle dry pea in dryland cropping systems. Dry pea used as green fallow vs. removal as forage did not differ in cropping sequence effects, suggesting that shoot material is less important than below-ground effects on soil nitrogen and water. The rotational effect of dry pea (legume) was greater than that from mustard (non-legume) at the two sites where N response occurred. Given that mustard biomass was greater, and well fertilized, which potentially enabled a greater N turnover than from dry pea residues, this result was surprising. This questions whether cropping sequence effects are related to shoot biomass N content. The rotational effect of dry pea was also greater than mustard at the most water-responsive site due to the shallow rooting depth of dry pea. Due to the combination of soil water use conservation and nitrogen contribution, early terminated dry pea (forage or green fallow) could be an effective strategy for diversifying wheat-fallow systems in the semiarid northern Great Plains. The crop rotation study compares organic and no-till management for continuous cereal-broadleaf rotations. Barley, canola, corn, dry pea (spring and winter), lentil, sunflower and wheat (spring and winter)are in one or more rotations. In 2001, an ideal opportunity to measure rooting depth resulted in the first report of proso millet using water extensively to 150-cm soil depth, exhibiting greater soil water use than all crops in the study except sunflower. The first 4-yr cycle of this experiment will be completed in 2002, completing the transition phase.

Impacts
Northern Plains producers remain interested in the economic value of diversifying dryland cropping systems to include oilseed and pulse crops in sequence with cereal crops. Evaluation surveys of recent conferences highlight strong producer interest in diversified crop rotations. Management of dry pea for fresh forage harvest (or grazing) or green fallow might provide an effective way to intensify crop production in environmentally sustainable no-till systems.

Publications

• Miller, P.R. McDonald, C.L., Derksen, D.A. and Waddington, J. 2001. The adaptation of seven broadleaf crops to the dry semiarid prairie. Canadian. J. Plant Sci. 81:29-43.
• Steppuhn, H., Volkmar, K.M. and Miller, P.R. 2001. Comparing canola, pea, pinto bean, and durum wheat crops grown in saline media. Crop Sci. 41:1827-1833.
• Zentner, R.P., Campbell, C.A., Biederbeck, V.O., Miller, P.R., Selles, F. and Fernandez, M.R. 2001. In search of a sustainable cropping system for the semiarid Canadian prairies. J. Sustainable. Agric. 18:117-136.

Progress 01/01/00 to 12/31/00

Outputs
Cropping sequence studies were conducted at six dryland sites in Montana investigating the effects of cool- and warm-season cereal, oilseed and pulse crops on subsequent cereal crops. In one study, green forage, green fallow, grain harvest, grain harvest + residue removal are compared among N and non-N fixing broadleaf and cereal crops to quantify the N benefit to spring wheat in a dryland environment. At one site an unusually early and severe drought revealed the importance of soil water conservation such as occurred when dry pea was harvested as fresh forage or terminated as green fallow. Spring wheat following these treatments yielded 83% of a fallow control compared to an average of 50% following the other crop x management treatments. Soil N cycling was consistently greater (20 kg N/ha) for dry pea than mustard for all management treatments at this site but had little impact on spring wheat yield since water was the key limiting factor. At second site, soil water was equally available following all crop x management treatments due to adequate fall, winter and early spring precipitation which recharged the shallow soil profile at that site. Spring wheat yields were significantly lower on spring wheat stubble that had been managed as grain or with post-harvest residue removal the previous year compared to all other treatments, which did not differ from each other, including spring wheat that was managed as green fallow or fresh forage the previous year. Differences in soil available nitrogen appear to be the cause for this response. In another study, soil water use and N contribution by a suite of cool- and warm-season cereal, oilseed and pulse crops to four different cereal crops is being investigated. At least one alternative crop was more profitable than wheat in three of five site-years. Among alternative crops chickpea and sunflower generated the most variable returns, with gross economic returns higher than spring wheat in two of five site-years each, where subsoil moisture was available for these deep rooting crops. At the two driest site-years dry pea yields were equal to spring wheat. Year-2 cereal crops yielded highest on flax and dry pea stubbles and lowest on sunflower and wheat stubbles due to differences in soil water availability and disease and weed interference. The average yield of the year-2 cereal crops was 33, 82 and 89% of a fallow check at three dryland sites, indicating the tremendous variation in continuous cropping in Mont. A rotation study was continued that compares organic and no-till management. Cereal-broadleaf sequences and seeding date (fall, winter, early spring, late spring) are varied to determine the effect on crop productivity and quality, broadleaf and grassy weed population dynamics, and soil organic carbon. One 4-year cycle of this rotation experiment will be completed before valid comparisons can be made among rotations.

Impacts
Promising results are emerging for the economic value of diversifying dryland cropping systems to include oilseed and pulse crops in sequence with cereal crops in the high northern Plains. Management of dry pea for fresh forage harvest (or grazing) or green fallow results in restricted crop growth periods which conserve water effectively for subsequent crops, and may provide an effective way to intensify crop production in environmentally sustainable no-till systems.

Publications

• Angadi, S.V., Cutforth, H.W., Miller P.R., McConkey, B.G., Entz, M.H., Brandt, S.A., and Volkmar, K.M.. 2000. Response of three Brassica species to high temperature stress during reproductive growth. Canadian J. Plant Sci. 80:693-701.
• Cattani, D.J., Miller, P.R., and Smith, S.R., Jr. 2000. The effect of ice encasement and early snow removal on the survival of creeping bentgrass. Canadian J. Plant Sci. 80: 465-466.
• Miller, P.R. 2000. Effect of varying seeding date on crop development, yield and yield components in canaryseed. Canadian J. Plant Sci. 80:83-86.