IMMIGRATION AND THE COMPETITIVENESS OF CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE

• Sponsoring Institution: National Institute of Food and Agriculture
• Project Status: COMPLETE
• Funding Source: HATCH
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 0183894
• Project Start Date: Oct 1, 2009
• Project End Date: Sep 30, 2014
• Program Code: [(N/A)]- (N/A)

Recipient Organization
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS
410 MRAK HALL
DAVIS,CA 95616-8671

Performing Department
Agricultural and Resource Economics

Non Technical Summary
SITUATION: About 2.5 million people work for wages on US farms sometime during a typical year, including a million in California. Over 80 percent of these hired farm workers are immigrants, and most are not authorized to work in the US. For most hired farm workers, working seasonally on farms is a job, not a career. At least 10 percent or 250,000 farm workers exit the hired farm work force each year, including 100,000 in California, which helps to explain the keen interest of farm employers in reaching outside US borders for workers to replace those who move up the US job ladder. PURPOSE: This project examines the impacts of immigrant farm workers (1) on the competitiveness of the farm commodities in which they are employed, (2) on the communities in which they live, and (3) prospects for upward mobility for immigrant farm workers and their children. We have three major objectives. First is research that makes creative uses of standard Census as well as administrative and survey data to examine the interaction of immigrants and settled residents in rural and agricultural areas. The dynamics of immigration and integration affect the benefits and costs of immigration, which we estimate in our models. Another component of the research is to chart more precisely the major phases of immigration, including solo male pioneers, followed by family unification/formation, permanent settlement and children in school and other interactions with public services, and finally political participation and power sharing. The third component examines the dynamics of farm employment. For example, the Employment Development Department extracted 1.4 million Social Security Numbers (SSNs) reported by employers with agricultural SIC codes in 2001; our analysis suggests that most were not reported by farm employers a decade earlier. The second objective is to prepare commodity and community studies that serve as a baseline for evaluating the effects of proposed reforms in concrete cases. We have successfully organized conferences that bring together the major parties involved in stimulating immigration and integrating immigrants, viz., employers who hire migrants, local leaders who act as bridges between newcomers and established residents, and migrant advocates. Each seminar leaves as a legacy baseline studies that are launching points for researchers as well as local leaders and journalists to do more' the studies are often the first serious discussion of the trade offs involved in immigration and integration at the local level in agricultural California. The third objective is to generate and diffuse timely and accurate information on immigration and its impacts in rural and agricultural areas. Our major vehicle for dissemination is Rural Migration News, a 20,000 word quarterly summary of the most significant immigration and integration issues affecting rural and agricultural areas. Rural Migration News has 800 subscribers, and the web site of which it is part has an average 10,000 visitors a day. Rural Migration News plays a unique role in informing local leaders, journalists, advocates and researchers about the changing face of rural California.

Animal Health Component

(N/A)

Research Effort Categories

Basic

(N/A)

Applied

(N/A)

Developmental

(N/A)

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
608	6050	3010	50%
601	6010	3010	50%

Knowledge Area
601 - Economics of Agricultural Production and Farm Management; 608 - Community Resource Planning and Development;

Subject Of Investigation
6010 - Individuals; 6050 - Communities, areas, and regions;

Field Of Science
3010 - Economics;

Keywords

farm workers

labor costs

competitiveness

immigration

community development

Goals / Objectives
This project examines the impacts of immigration on the competitiveness of California and US agriculture, the economic status of farm workers and their children, and the viability of agricultural communities with large farm worker populations. We examine four major questions. First, what are the impacts of the availability of foreign workers from outside the US on the competitiveness of US agriculture, especially fruit and vegetable production Second, what are the earnings and career trajectories of immigrants who begin their American journeys in US fields, and what are the prospects for their children Third, how are the communities in which foreign-born farm workers settle being affected by immigration Fourth, how does emigration affect rural Mexico, the origins of most hired US farm workers

Project Methods
There are three major procedures: 1. Analysis of census and administrative data to establish baselines and test how immigration reform might affect the competitiveness of California agriculture, the mobility of farm workers and their children, and the economies of communities in agricultural areas. 2. Hold seminars that enable researchers to meet with farm employers and worker advocates as well as community leaders to educate them and to learn of their concerns 3. Prepare and publish Rural Migration News to keep readers abreast of immigration and integration developments affecting agricultural America.

Progress 10/01/09 to 09/30/14

Outputs
Target Audience: Researchers and policy makers examining the impacts of immigrant farm workers on the competitiveness of California agriculture Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Project outcomes include analytic articles that explain how immigration and other policy changes are affecting the US farm labor market for professional researchers, articles aimed at broader audiences, and interviews with journalists. Rural Migration News (http://migration.ucdavis.edu), which reaches 1,000+ readers each quarter, included summaries of the major findings. Many of the publications related to this project have been reprinted in farm and other media, and are cited by policy makers developing immigration reform proposals What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Hired workers do 60 percent of US farm work, 70 percent were born outside the US, and over half are not authorized to work in the US. This project examined the impacts of immigrant farm workers: 1. on the competitiveness of the farms that produce labor-intensive commodities and rely on hired farm workers 2. on the economic mobility of immigrants who begin their American journey in agriculture 3. on the viability of the communities in which immigrants settle with their children The goal was to examine the impacts of current migration patterns and assess the likely effects of policies that aim to keep agriculture competitive while avoiding the creation of a new rural underclass. The project was successful in analyzing the impacts of current migration patterns on the competitiveness of California and US agriculture. In books, research articles, and a variety of other outlets, project outputs highlighted the uneven increase in wages in response to fewer newly arrived workers from Mexico, labor-saving changes and rising imports in some commodities, and more efficient use of available workers. The analysis of policy options, which include legalizing currently unauthorized farm workers and making it easier to hire legal guest workers, absorbed significant research time and prompted many requests for data and testimony from federal and state authorities. Policy-related outputs included estimates of how many unauthorized workers would be legalized under various immigration reform proposals, how farm employer usage of the H-2A guest worker program could change under various reform suggestions, and what wage tipping point would spur labor-saving mechanization.

Publications

Progress 01/01/13 to 09/30/13

Outputs
Target Audience: Researchers and policy makers interested in the impacts of immigrant farm workers on the competitiveness of California agriculture. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? Nothing Reported How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Project outcomes include analytic articles that explain how immigration and other policy changes are affecting the US farm labor market. We examine the impacts of migration, and the likely effects of changes to immigration and other policies, in peer-reviewed journal articles, Rural Migration News (http://migration.ucdavis.edu), and other outlets. These publications are reprinted and cited frequently in farm and other media, and are of great interest to policy makers developing immigration reform proposals. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Project outcomes include analytic articles that explain how immigration and other policy changes are affecting the US farm labor market. We examine the impacts of migration, and the likely effects of changes to immigration and other policies, in peer-reviewed journal articles, Rural Migration News (http://migration.ucdavis.edu), and other outlets. These publications are reprinted and cited frequently in farm and other media, and are of great interest to policy makers developing immigration reform proposals.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Hired workers do most US farm work, three-fourths were born outside the US, and half are not authorized to work in the US. This project examines the impacts of immigrant farm workers: 1. on the competitiveness of the farms that produce commodities that rely on hired farm workers 2. on the economic mobility of immigrants who begin their American journey in agriculture 3. on the viability of the communities in which immigrants settle with their children The goal is to develop policies that keep agriculture competitive while avoiding the creation of a rural underclass through the immigration of farm workers from poorer countries who have low levels of education. The research outlines the major policy options, which include legalizing currently unauthorized farm workers, making it easier to hire legal guest workers, and subsidizing and encouraging mechanization or imports. Outputs included estimates of how many unauthorized workers would be legalized under various immigration reform proposals, how farm employer usage of the H-2A guest worker program may change under various reform suggestions, and what wage tipping point would spur labor-saving mechanization.

Publications

• Type: Book Chapters Status: Awaiting Publication Year Published: 2014 Citation: Martin, Philip, 2014. The United States: The Continuing Immigration Debate and Germany: Managing Migration in the 21st Century in Hollifield, James, Philip Martin and Pia Orrenius. Eds. 2013. Controlling Immigration. A Global Perspective. Stanford University Press. www.sup.org/book.cgi?id=22520
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Martin, Philip,. Ed. 2013. Migration and Competitiveness: Japan and the United States. Migration Letters. Vol 10. No 2. May. http://essential.metapress.com/content/l17793625503/ Author of Introduction (pp115-124), Migration and US Competitiveness (pp125-143), and Migration and US Agricultural Competitiveness (pp 159-179).
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Martin, Philip, 2013. Immigration and Farm Labor: Policy Options and Consequences American Journal of Agricultural Economics Vol 95. No 2. pp470-475. January http://ajae.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/2/470.full
• Type: Websites Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Martin, Philip. Editor. Quarterly. Rural Migration News. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/

Progress 01/01/12 to 12/31/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Hired workers do most US farm work, three-fourths were born outside the US, and half are not authorized to work in the US. This project examines the impacts of immigrant farm workers: 1. on the competitiveness of the commodities that employ hired farm workers 2. on the economic mobility of immigrants who begin their American journey in agriculture 3. on the viability of the communities in which immigrants settle with their children The goal is to develop policies that keep agriculture competitive while avoiding the creation of a rural underclass through the immigration of farm workers from poorer countries who have low levels of education. The research outlines the major policy options, which include legalizing currently unauthorized farm workers, making it easier to hire legal guest workers, and subsidizing and encouraging mechanization or imports. Outputs included estimates of how many unauthorized workers would be legalized under various immigration reform proposals, how farm employer usage of the H-2A guest worker program may change under various reform suggestions, and what wage tipping point would spur labor-saving mechanization. An analysis of panel data from rural Mexico suggests that the same departure from farm work that characterized U.S. farm labor history is well underway in Mexico. Meanwhile, the demand for agricultural labor in Mexico is rising. In the future, U.S. agriculture will compete with Mexican farms for a dwindling supply of farm labor. The decline in foreign farm labor supply to the United States ultimately will need to be accompanied by farm labor conservation, switching to less labor intensive crops and technologies, and labor management practices that match fewer workers with more farm jobs. PARTICIPANTS: Not relevant to this project. TARGET AUDIENCES: Not relevant to this project. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Project outcomes include analytic articles that explain how immigration and other policy changes are affecting the US farm labor market. We examine the impacts of migration, and the likely effects of changes to immigration and other policies, in peer-reviewed journal articles, Rural Migration News, and other outlets. These publications are reprinted and cited frequently in farm and other media, and are of great interest to policy makers developing immigration reform proposals.

Publications

• Martin, Philip, 2013. Immigration and Farm Labor: Policy Options and Consequences American Journal of Agricultural Economics Vol 95. No 2. pp470-475. January http://ajae.oxfordjournals.org/content/95/2/470.full
• Martin, Philip. 2012. Editor. Quarterly. Rural Migration News. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/
• Martin, Philip. 2012. Reducing Migration Costs and Maximizing Human Development. In Omelaniuk, Irena. Ed. 2012. Global Perspectives on Migration and Development. Springer. www.springer.com/social+sciences/population+studies/book/978-94-007-4 109-6 Martin, Philip. 2012. Agriculture and Migration After Arizona. ARE Update. Vol. 16, No. 1, Sep/Oct. http://giannini.ucop.edu/are-update/16/1/agriculture-and-migration
• Martin, Philip. 2012. Immigration and Farm Labor: What's Next. Choices. Vol 27. No 1. Quarter 1. www.choicesmagazine.org/choices-magazine/policy-issues/immigration-an d-farm-labor-what-next
• J. Edward Taylor, Diane Charlton, and Antonio Yunez-Naude. 2012. "The End of Farm Labor Abundance." Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 34(4):587-598. http://aepp.oxfordjournals.org/content/34/4/587.full.pdf+html

Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11

Outputs
OUTPUTS: This project examines impacts of immigrant farm workers 1) on the competitiveness of the commodities that employ such workers, 2) on viability of the communities in which immigrants settle with their children, and 3) on the economic mobility of immigrants who begin their American journey in agriculture. The goal is to develop policies that keep agriculture competitive while avoiding the creation of a rural underclass throught the immigration of farm workers with low levels of education. Some 2.5 mil. people work for wages on US farms during a typical year, including 1 mil. in California. Average employment is lower, about 1.2 mil. in the US and 400,000 in California. With two or more workers sharing each full-time equivalent job, the average farm worker is employed 1,000 hours/year and earns $8-$9 an hour. Because hired workers are employed half as much as nonfarm workers, and earn half of the $17 average hourly earnings of nonfarm workers, they earn a quarter as much, giving most below-poverty level earnings. Most hired farm workers, and almost all new entrants to the hired farm work force, are unauthorized migrants from lower wage countries, primarily Mexico. If current trends continue, the farm workers of tomorrow are growing up today outside the US. This project deals with how foreign farm workers arrive in the US, their impacts on the commodities in which they are employed, and upward mobility prospects in the US for hired workers and their children. The project includes analysis of programs that admit legal migrant workers to the US and proposals to modify them. The major options are the status quo, which means that most entrants to the hired farm work force are unauthorized Mexicans, stepped up enforcement, which may encourage more farm employers to obtain workers via the H-2A program, and enactment of AgJOBS to legalize many unauthorized farm workers and make the H-2A program more employer friendly. In addition to examining the effects of current immigration patterns and proposals on the farm work force, we used data from rural Mexico to examine the effects of IRCA (1986) and NAFTA (1994) on flows of labor from rural Mexico to US agriculture. Contrary to expectations, we found that both policies increased Mexico-US migration and temporarily offset what we expect to be a long term trend of decreasing migration to US farms. The determinants and impacts of international migration are different for men and women. PARTICIPANTS: Not relevant to this project. TARGET AUDIENCES: Not relevant to this project. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Project outcomes include analytic articles and other publications that explain how immigration, trade, and other policy changes are and are likely to affect the US farm labor market. We examined the impacts of migration, and the likely effects of changes to immigration and other policies, in a major conference in Washington DC in May 2011, and disseminated the results in Rural Migration News. The work generated by the project is cited frequently in farm and other media, and is of great interest to policy makers grappling with unauthorized migration and policies to deal with such migration .

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: This project examines impacts of immigrant farm workers 1) on the competitiveness of the commodities that employ such workers, 2) on viability of the communities in which immigrants settle with their children, and 3) on the economic mobility of immigrants who begin their American journey in agriculture. The goal is to develop policies that keep agriculture competitive while avoiding the creation of a rural underclass throught the immigration of farm workers with low levels of education. Some 2.5 mil. people work for wages on US farms during a typical year, including 1 mil. in California. Average employment is lower, about 1.2 mil. in the US and 400,000 in California. With two or more workers sharing each full-time equivalent job, the average farm worker is employed 1,000 hours/year and earns $8-$9 an hour. Because hired workers are employed half as much as nonfarm workers, and earn half of the $17 average hourly earnings of nonfarm workers, they earn a quarter as much, giving most below-poverty level earnings. Most hired farm workers, and almost all new entrants to the hired farm work force, are unauthorized migrants from lower wage countries, primarily Mexico. If current trends continue, the farm workers of tomorrow are growing up today outside the US. This project deals with how foreign farm workers arrive in the US, their impacts on the commodities in which they are employed, and upward mobility prospects in the US for hired workers and their children. The project includes analysis of programs that admit legal migrant workers to the US and proposals to modify them. The major options are the status quo, which means that most entrants to the hired farm work force are unauthorized Mexicans, stepped up enforcement, which may encourage more farm employers to obtain workers via the H-2A program, and enactment of AgJOBS to legalize many unauthorized farm workers and make the H-2A program more employer friendly. In addition to examining the effects of current immigration patterns and proposals on the farm work force, we used data from rural Mexico to examine the effects of IRCA (1986) and NAFTA (1994) on flows of labor from rural Mexico to US agriculture. Contrary to expectations, we found that both policies increased Mexico-US migration and temporarily offset what we expect to be a long term trend of decreasing migration to US farms. The determinants and impacts of international migration are different for men and women PARTICIPANTS: Not relevant to this project. TARGET AUDIENCES: Not relevant to this project. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Project outcomes include analytic articles and other publications that explain how immigration, trade, and other policy changes are and are likely to affect the US farm labor market. We examined the impacts of migration, and the likely effects of changes to immigration and other policies, in a major conference in Washington DC in May 2010. The work generated by the project is cited frequently in farm and other media, and is of great interest to policy makers who are developing immigration reform proposals.

Publications

• Calvin, Linda and Philip Martin. 2010. The US Produce Industry and Labor: Facing the Future in a Global Economy. USDA. Economic Research Report No. (ERR-106). November. http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/ERR106/ and www.ers.usda.gov/AmberWaves/december10/Features/LaborIntensive.htm
• Martin, Philip. Editor. 2010. Quarterly. Migration News and Rural Migration News. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/
• Martin, Philip and Linda Calvin. 2010. Immigration Reform: What Does It Mean for Agriculture and Rural America. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. Volume 32, Issue 2. Pp. 232-253
• Martin, Philip. 2010. Who Needs Migrant Workers Pp295-321 in Ruhs, Martin and Bridget Anderson. Eds. 2010. Labour Shortages, Immigration, and Public Policy. Oxford University Press
• Martin, Philip. 2010. The Research-Policy Nexus: The Case of Unauthorised Mexico-US Migration and US Policy Responses. Population, Space and Place. Vol 16. No 3. May/June. Pp241-252. www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/113509331/issue

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: This project examines impacts of immigrant farm workers 1) on the competitiveness of the commodities that employ such workers, 2) on viability of the communities in which immigrants settle with their children, and 3) on the economic mobility of immigrants who begin their American journey in agriculture. The goal is to help the US avoid re-creating a rural underclass through immigration of farm workers. Some 2.5 mil. people work for wages on US farms during a typical year, including 1 mil. in California. Average employment is much lower--about 1.2 mil. in the US and 400,000 in California. With two to 2.5 workers sharing each full-time equivalent job, the average farm worker is employed 1,000 hours/year and earns $8-$9 an hour. Because hired workers are employed half as much as nonfarm workers, and earn half of the $17 average hourly earnings of nonfarm workers, most have below-poverty level earnings. Most hired farm workers, and almost all new entrants to the hired farm work force, are immigrants from lower wage countries. If current trends continue, the farm workers of tomorrow are growing up today outside the US. This project deals with how they are admitted, their impacts on the commodities in which they are employed, and prospects in the US for hired workers and their children. We analyze programs that admit legal migrant workers to the US and proposals to modify them. The major options are the status quo, which means that most entrants to the hired farm work force are unauthorized Mexicans, stepped up enforcement, which may push more farm employers to obtain workers via the H-2A program, and enactment of AgJOBS, which would legalize many unauthorized farm workers and make the H-2A program more employer friendly. In addition to examining the effects of current immigration patterns and proposals on the farm work force, we used data from rural Mexico to examine the effects of IRCA (1986) and NAFTA (1994) on flows of labor from rural Mexico to US agriculture. Contrary to expectations, we found that both policies increased migration and temporarily offset the long term trend of decreasing migration to US farms. However, both the determinants and impacts of international migration are different for men and women. PARTICIPANTS: Not relevant to this project. TARGET AUDIENCES: Not relevant to this project. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Project outcomes include analytic articles and other publications that explain how immigration, trade, and other policy changes are and are likely to affect the US farm labor market. We examined the impacts of migration, and the likely effects of changes to immigration and other policies, in a major conference in Washington DC in May 2009. The work generated by the project is cited frequently in farm and other media, and is of great interest to policy makers who are developing immigration reform proposals.

Publications

• Martin, Philip L. 2009. Quarterly. Migration News and Rural Migration News. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/
• Martin, Philip. 2009. Importing Poverty Immigration and the Changing Face of Rural America. Yale University Press. http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.aspisbn=9780300139174
• Martin, Philip. 2009. Sustainable Labor Migration Policies in a Globalizing World. Pp 18-42 in Sobel, Andrew. Ed. 2009. Challenges of Globalization. Immigration, Social Welfare, Global Governance. Routledge
• Martin, Philip. 2009. Immigration Reform: What Does It Mean for Agriculture Choices. P15. September. Pp1-6. www.aaea.org/publications/policy-issues Similar article in ARE Update, Vol. 13, No. 1, Sep/Oct, 2009. www.agecon.ucdavis.edu/extension/update
• Martin, Philip. 2009. Recession and Migration: A New Era for Labor Migration International Migration Review. Vol 43. No 3. Fall. Pp671-691

Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: This project examines impacts of immigrant farm workers 1) on the competitiveness of the commodities that employ such workers, 2) on viability of the communities in which immigrants settle with their children, and 3) on the economic mobility of immigrants who begin their American journey in agriculture. The goal is to help the US avoid re-creating a rural underclass through immigration of farm workers. Some 2.5 mil. people work for wages on US farms during a typical year, including 1 mil. in California, but average employment is about 1.2 mil. in the US and 400,000 in California. The average farm worker is employed 1,000 hours/year and earns $8-$9 an hour. Working half a year for half of the $17 average hourly earnings of nonfarm workers, most farm workers have below-poverty level earnings. If current trends continue, the farm workers of tomorrow are growing up today outside the US. Many new arrivals find their first US jobs with farm labor contractors and other middlemen who assemble workers into crews and take them from farm to farm. Most farm workers live in cities and towns and commute daily to the fields; housing and rides to work can absorb 1/3 of earnings. For these reasons, seasonal farm work is a job not a career. Turnover in the seasonal farm work force is at least 10 percent a year, meaning that under current labor market arrangements agriculture "needs" 250,000 newcomers each year including 100,000 in CA. We analyze programs that admit legal migrant workers to the US and proposals to modify them to determine the likely impacts on agriculture and the communities in which immigrants live. The major options are the status quo, which means that most entrants to the hired farm work force are unauthorized Mexicans, stepped up enforcement, which may push more farm employers to obtain workers via the H-2A program, and enactment of AgJOBS, which would legalize many unauthorized farm workers and make the H-2A program more employer friendly. In addition to examining the effects of current immigration patterns and proposals on the farm work force, we used data from rural Mexico to examine the effects of IRCA (1986) and NAFTA (1994) on flows of labor from rural Mexico to US agriculture. Contrary to expectations, we found that both policies increased migration and temporarily offset the long term trend of decreasing migration to US farms. However, both the determinants and impacts of international migration are different for men and women. PARTICIPANTS: Not relevant to this project. TARGET AUDIENCES: Not relevant to this project. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.

Impacts
Project outcomes include analytic articles and other publications that explain how immigration, trade, and other policy changes are and are likely to affect the US farm labor market and the likely effects of changes to immigration and other policies. We organized a conference in Washington DC in May 2008 that brought 45 participants from around the US to discuss these issues. The work generated by the project is cited frequently in farm and other media, and is of great interest to policy makers.

Publications

• Martin, Philip L. Quarterly. 2008. "Migration News and Rural Migration News". http://migration.ucdavis.edu/
• Martin, Philip. 2008. "Low- and Semi-Skilled Workers Abroad". Pp77-104 in IOM. 2008. World Migration Report. Managing Labour Mobility in the Evolving Global Economy www.iom.ch/jahia/Jahia/cache/offonce/pid/1674entryId=20275
• Martin, Philip. 2008. "Managing Mexico-United States Migration: Economic and Labor Issues". Pp61-88 in Escobar, Agustin and Susan Martin. Eds. 2008. Mexico-U.S. Migration Management: A Binational Approach. Lexington Books. www.lexingtonbooks.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtmlcommand=Search&db=^DB /CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0739125761
• Lisa Pfeiffer, Susan Richter, Peri Fletcher, and J. Edward Taylor, "Gender in Economic Research on International Migration: A Critical Review". Chapter 2 in A.R. Morrison, M. Schiff and M. Sjoeblom, eds., The International Migration of Women. New York: Palgrave Macmillan and The World Bank, 2008.
• Susan Richter and J Edward Taylor, "Gender and the Determinants of International Migration from Rural Mexico over Time". Chapter 3 in A.R. Morrison, M. Schiff and M. Sjoeblom, eds., The International Migration of Women. New York: Palgrave Macmillan and The World Bank, 2008.

Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
Project examines impacts of immigrant farm workers 1) on commodity competitiveness in which they are employed, 2) on viability of their communities, 3) on immigrants prospects who begin in agriculture for upward US mobility. Goal is to help US avoid re-creating a rural underclass through immigration of farm workers. 2.5 mil. people work for wages on US farms during a typical year, including 1 mil. in California, but average employment is about 1 mil. in the US and 400,000 in California, meaning the average farm worker is employed only 1,000 hours/year. Working half a year for half of the $17 average hourly earnings of nonfarm workers, most farm workers have below-poverty level earnings. If current trends continue, the farm workers of tomorrow will grow up today outside the US. Most begin in America by climbing ladders to pick fruit, or stooping to pick vegetables. Many new arrivals find their first US jobs with farm labor contractors and other middlemen who assemble workers into crews and take them from farm to farm. Most farm workers live in cities and towns and commute daily to the fields; housing and rides to work can absorb 1/3 of earnings. For these reasons, seasonal farm work is a job not a career. Turnover in the seasonal farm work force is at least 10 percent a year, meaning that under current labor market arrangements agriculture "needs" 250,000 newcomers each year including 100,000 in CA. We examine the proposals under which new farm workers are and could be admitted to the US and their impacts on agriculture and the communities in which immigrants live. We examined Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act, debated by the Senate in 2007, that would have provided a path to legal US status for the unauthorized(favored by Democrats) and shifted future legal immigration toward foreigners with skills under a point system (favored by Republicans). In particular, CIRA 2007 would have 1) increased border and interior enforcement to slow illegal migration; 2) provided a path to legal status for most of the 12 million unauthorized foreigners; 3) established a new guest worker program and revised existing programs; and 4) created a point system to select some US immigrants. Unlike previous proposals, CIRA 2007 included triggers -- more Border Patrol agents would be hired, more border fencing built, and a mandatory new employee verification system working before the Z-legalization and new Y-1 guest worker programs could start. Second, CIRA 2007 required touchbacks -- unauthorized foreigners must leave the US, apply for immigrant visas abroad, and return to the US legally. Third, CIRA 2007 would have changed the legal immigration system by admitting 1/3 of US immigrants on the basis of points earned for US employment experience, English, education and other factors expected to increase the likelihood that a foreigner would be economically successful in the US. We used a new data set to examine how the NAFTA and IRCA affected flow of labor from rural Mexico to US agriculture. Contrary to expectations, we found that both policies increased migration and temporarily offset the long term trend of decreasing migration to US farms.

Impacts
Publications include a monograph on US immigration patterns and policies, an article on proposals to legalize some unauthorized farm workers and make it easier for farm employers to obtain legal guest workers, and an overview of the economics of immigration, and two articles on the impacts of immigration polocies on Mexican farm-labor migration to the US. A conference on immigration and agricultural sector and rural community viability was held. This work is cited frequently in media reports of the likely impacts of immigration reforms on agriculture and rural communities.

Publications

• Martin, Philip L. Quarterly. 2007. Migration News and Rural Migration News. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/
• Martin, Philip L. 2007. Immigration Reform, Agriculture, and Rural Communities. Choices. Vol 22. No 1. www.choicesmagazine.org/
• Martin, Philip L. 2006. The Economics of Migration. Harvard International Review. July. http://hir.harvard.edu/articles/print.php?article=1444
• Martin, Philip, Manolo Abella and Christiane Kuptsch. 2006. Managing Labor Migration in the Twenty-First Century. Yale University Press.
• Martin, Philip, Susan Martin and Sarah Cross. 2007. High-level Dialogue on Migration and Development. International Migration, Volume 45, Number 1, March. pp7-25
• Boucher, S., A. Smith, J.E. Taylor, and A. Yunez Naude. 2007. Impacts of policy reforms on the supply of Mexican labor to US farms: New evidence from Mexico. Review of Agricultural Economics. 29:1, 4-16.
• Boucher, S. and J.E. Taylor. 2007. Policy shocks and the supply of Mexican labor to US farms. Choices. 22:1, 37-41.

Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06

Outputs
AES Project 7096 examines the economics of the wine industry. Wine is one of the world's oldest drinks, but production and consumption remain concentrated in France, Italy, and Spain, which have 3 percent of the world's population, produce 52% of the world's wine, and consume 43% - an average 22 gallons per adult per year (there are five 750-ml bottles in a gallon). Most Americans do not drink wine regularly, and US wine consumption fell in the 1990s before climbing a bit in the past few years - American adults drink an average 2.2 gallons or 12 bottles of wine a year. Wine consumption is concentrated: the 30 million Americans who drink wine regularly drink 90 percent of the wine consumed in the US, an average 12 gallons or 60 bottles a year. There is a battle fermenting in the wine business between Old World European producers and New World producers in Argentina, Australia, California, Chile, New Zealand, and South Africa that raises a fundamental question: do consumers prefer the Old World approach to making wine, which involves mixing varieties of grapes to make wine that reflects the local terroir (soil and climate), or the New World approach of using one variety of grapes and aiming to produce wine with a consistent taste year after year such as Mondavi Chardonnay? This project seeks to answer fundamental questions about the economics of the wine industry. Over the past two decades, the price gaps between the major types of wine widened, even though quality gaps narrowed. Will price gaps eventually narrow as consumers understand quality gaps are narrowing? Will growers insist on contracts before planting wines so they have some certainty about the revenues they expect to receive, or will wine continue to be marked by booms and busts? A special focus of this project is on labor in the California wine industry. The wine industry considers itself to be different from other farm commodities, but hires the same workers as other farm producers. Among the questions being investigated are how the downward pressure on wages due to being in farming affects the ability of the wine industry to attract and retain skilled workers.

Impacts
A Unified Convention presentation covered wine industry labor. All labor markets deal with recruitment (getting workers into jobs, wages, or motivation) and retention (workers work fast enough to keep their jobs, return to work next season). Agriculture handles these functions in unique ways. Recruitment is typically handled informally by intermediaries (independent contractors or crew leaders). Intermediaries recruit by word of mouth, often asking current workers to bring friends and relatives to fill vacant jobs. Remuneration/motivation is encouraged by the wage/reward system. Most farm and nonfarm workers earn hourly wages; management's task is to monitor the speed of work. Hourly wages are usually paid when quality is important and/or management can easily monitor the pace (hoeing weeds is paid hourly because a foreman can set the pace by walking with the crew through the field). When quality is less important or it is harder to monitor the speed (ex., when workers pick crops in trees), piece rate wages give workers incentives to work faster. Piece rate wages 1) keep grower costs constant regardless of worker productivity variations, 2) minimize the need for close supervision of speed but require monitoring of work quality. Retention is getting seasonal workers to return to work day after day and season after season. Traditionally farmers worked collectively to ensure that there would be an adequate supply of seasonal farm workers for all. How? Generally by getting government to open border gates or at least not closing them to unauthorized workers.

Publications

• Martin, Philip. 2006. Competing for global talent: The US experience. Chap. in Competing for Global Talent, C. Kuptsch and P. Fong, eds., International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 87-104.
• Martin, Philip. 2006. Regulating private recruiters: The core issues. Chap. in Merchants of Labour, C. Kuptsch, ed., International Institute for Labour Studies, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 13-25.
• Martin, Philip. Jan. 2006. ICE: Worksite enforcement. Migration News, Vol. 13, no. 1. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/
• Martin, Philip, S. Martin (no relation), and P. Weil. 2006. Managing Migration: The Promise of Cooperation. Lexington Books, MA. 276 pp.
• Martin, Philip and S. Martin (no relation). 2006. GCIM: A new global migration facility. International Migration, Vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 4-12.
• Martin, Philip. Spring 2006. Immigration reform: Implications for agriculture. Western Economics Forum, Vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-9.
• Martin, Philip. Mar. 2006. Immigration reform: Implications for agriculture. ARE Update, Dept. of Ag. & Resource Economics, UC Davis, Vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1-4.
• Martin, Philip, M. Abella, and C. Kuptsch. 2006. Managing Labor Migration in the Twenty-First Century. Global management series, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 226 pp.
• Martin, Philip. 2006. Mexico-U.S. migration. Skilled migrants. Encyclopedia entries in Immigration in America today: An encyclopedia, Loucky, Armstrong, and Estrada, eds., Greenwood Press, Westport, CT., pp. 299-305.
• Goldsmith, P. and Philip Martin. 2006. Community and labor issues in animal agriculture. Choices, 3rd quarter, Vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 183-187.
• Martin, Philip. Nov. 2006. Book review of Labor standards in the United States and Canada, by R. Block, K. Roberts, and R. Clarke. In American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 1119.
• Martin, Philip and E. Midgley. Dec. 2006. Immigration: Shaping and reshaping America. Population Bulletin, Vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 3-28.
• Escobar, A., K. Hailbronner, Philip Martin, and L. Meza. 2006. Migration and development: Mexico and Turkey. International Migration Review, Vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 707-718.

Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05

Outputs
This project explores a fundamental question: is the US re-creating a rural underclass through the immigration of farm workers? About 2.5 million people work for wages on US farms sometime during a typical year, including 1 million in California. Over 90 percent of these hired farm workers are immigrants. Most of these farm workers are employed seasonally, for 1 to 8 months, producing crops that range from artichokes to zucchini, and most have below-poverty level earnings. For almost all farm workers, seasonal farm work is a job for less than 10 years, not a career, so that at least 10 percent or 250,000 US farm workers, including 100,000 in CA, must be replaced each year, usually with immigrants from rural Mexico. If current trends continue, the farm workers of tomorrow will continue to grow up today outside the US. Most arrive in the US between the ages of 15 and 30 and begin their American journeys by climbing ladders to pick apples and oranges, or stooping to pick strawberries or cut heads of lettuce. Many new arrivals find their first US jobs with farm labor contractors (FLCs) and other middlemen who assemble workers into crews of 20 to 40, and take them from farm to farm. Most farm workers live in cities and towns in agricultural areas and commute daily to the fields. Many get rides with independent 'raiteros' who ferry workers from pick up points in farm worker cities to the fields in vans for $4 to $6 a day. This project examines the impacts of immigrant farm workers (1) on the competitiveness of the farm commodities in which they are employed, (2) the communities in which they live, and (3) prospects for upward mobility for immigrant farm workers and their children

Impacts
The major product in the past year is a book from the Urban Institute Press that explains the processes by which the addition of farm jobs and immigration interact, and the effects of such migration. There were also articles on pending legislation and NAFTA's effects on Mexico-US migration. Project results have been widely reported in the media and via Rural Migration News-http://migration.ucdavis.edu

Publications

• Martin, Philip, Michael Fix, and Ed Taylor. 2006. The New Rural Poverty: Agriculture and Immigration in California. Urban Institute Press. www.uipress.org/
• Martin, Philip. 2005. AgJOBS. New Solution or New Problem. UC Davis Law Review. Vol 38, No 3. Pp 973-991. www.law.ucdavis.edu/lawreview/
• Martin, Philip. 2005. Mexico-US Migration. Pp 441-486 in Gary Hubauer and Jeffrey Schott. Nafta Revisited: Achievements and Challenges. Institute for International Economics. www.iie.com/
• Rural Migration News. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/ 2005

Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04

Outputs
41. Progress Report: (limited to 3200 characters) This project explores a fundamental question: is the US re-creating a rural underclass through the immigration of farm workers? About 2.5 million people work for wages on US farms sometime during a typical year, including 1 million in California, and over 80 percent of these hired farm workers are immigrants. Most of these farm workers are employed seasonally, for 1 to 8 months, producing crops that range from artichokes to zuchinni. For almost all farm workers, seasonal farm work is a job for less than 10 years, not a career, so that at least 10 percent or 250,000 farm workers must be replaced each year, usually with immigrants from rural Mexico. If current trends continue, the farm workers of tomorrow will continue to grow up today outside the US. Most arrive in the US between the ages of 15 and 30 and begin their American journeys by climbing ladders to pick apples and oranges, or stooping to pick strawberries or cut heads of lettuce. Many new arrivals find their first US jobs with farm labor contractors (FLCs) and other middlemen who assemble workers into crews of 20 to 40, and take them from farm to farm. Few farm workers live on the farms on which they work. Instead, they live in cities and towns in agricultural areas and commute daily to the fields. Many ride in vans operated by their supervisors, but there are also many independent 'raiteros' who ferry workers from pick up points in farm worker cities to the fields in vans for $4 to $6 a day. During the 1990s, more farm workers who had previously commuted between rural Mexico and rural California settled in California, formed or sent for their families, and became US residents. In California, immigant farm workers settled in large numbers as the state was experiencing its worst recession in a half century, as welfare rolls were rising, and as Governor Pete Wilson blamed immigrants for the state's budget deficit. This project examines the impacts of immigrant farm workers (1) on the competitiveness of the farm commodities in which they are employed, (2) the communities in which they live, and (3) prospects for upward mobility for immigrant farm workers and their children

Impacts
There were several major journal articles documenting the impacts of immigration in rural and agricultural areas, and project results have been widely reported in the media and via the journal newsletter Rural Migration News-http://migration.ucdavis.edu Several of the seminars held in farming areas receiving immigrants led to the formation of local commissions to deal with the migration and development issues that were researched.

Publications

• Martin, Philip. 2004. Mexican Migration to the US; The Effects of Nafta. Pp 120-130 in Massey Douglas and Edward Taylor. Eds International Migration. Prospects and Policies in a Global Market. Oxford University Press.
• Martin, Philip. 2004. The United States: The Continuing Immigration Debate pp 51-85 and Germany: Managing Migration in the 21st Century. pp221-252 in Cornelius, Wayne A., Takeyuki Tsuda, Philip L. Martin, and James F. Hollifield. Eds. 2004. Controlling Immigration. A Global Perspective Stanford University Press. www.sup.org
• Martin, Philip. 2003. AgJOBS: New Solution or New Problem?" International Migration Review. Vol 37, No 4, Winter 127-141. Similar article with Bert Mason, Choices, May 2004.

Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03

Outputs
This project asks a fundamental question: is the U.S. re-creating a rural underclass through the immigration of farm workers? About 2.5 million people work for wages on U.S. farms sometime during a typical year, including 1 million in California, and over 80 percent of these hired farm workers are immigrants. For most, seasonal farm work is a job, not a career, and 10 percent or 250,000 farm workers exit the work force each year, including 100,000 in California. Thus, farm employers have a keen interest in reaching outside U.S. borders for additional workers, while farming communities and the state are concerned about the economic mobility of low-wage workers and their children in the US. Most immigrant farm workers arrive in the U.S. between the ages of 15 and 30 and begin their American journeys by climbing ladders to pick apples and oranges. Many new arrivals find their first U.S. jobs with farm labor contractors (FLCs) and other middlemen who assemble workers into crews of 20 to 40, and deploy them from farm to farm. The process by which FLCs deploy crews is inefficient, so that sometime during a typical year about 2.5 workers are employed to fill one year-round farm job. Seasonality requires that there be more workers than jobs, and this project aims to develop more efficient methods of matching workers and jobs in order to minimize the number of new workers required. Many workers who used to commute between rural Mexico and rural California, settled in California; formed or sent for their families; and became U.S. residents, adding residents to often financially-stressed California cities. Their integration into the U.S. typically went through a four-phase process. First, solo males came to fill seasonal farm jobs and are largely invisible to local communities; second was the shift of some seasonal workers into year-round farm and nonfarm work in food processing, construction and services; third was immigrants settling in rural areas and sending for their spouses and children, or forming families in the U.S.; and fourth was marked by political activism by immigrants and their families. We are refining and using this phases-of-integration model to help farm employers, community leaders, and worker advocates to understand the historic changes they are experiencing. We conduct annual "changing face" seminars in agricultural areas that involve all those affected, and our baseline studies have helped to promote an honest debate in rural areas about the benefits and costs of continued immigration. Our estimates of the relationships between farm jobs, immigration, and poverty have shaped state thinking about allocating housing and anti-poverty funds and federal policies on immigration and services for migrant and seasonal farm workers.

Impacts
We developed the term "changing face" to explain the changed demography wrought by the arrival of immigrants to fill farm and farm-related jobs, models to assess the relationships between farm jobs, immigration, and poverty, and the 4-stage integration process for federal, state, and local policy makers and their policy options: guest workers to avoid integration costs, or making workers immigrants and eventually citizens to speed their upward mobility in the US.

Publications

• Martin, Philip and Bert Mason. 2004. Hired Workers on California Farms. Jerry Siebert, Editor. California Agriculture. UC-DANR.
• Martin, Philip and J. Edward Taylor. 2003. Farm employment, immigration, and poverty: a structural analysis. Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 349-363.
• Martin, Philip. 2003. Mexico-US Migration. Institute for International Economics. http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/nafta-migration.pdf
• Green, R., P. Martin, and J. E. Taylor. 2003. Welfare Reform in Agricultural California. Journal Of Agricultural And Resource Economics, Vol. 28, No. 1, April pp. 169-183.
• Martin, Philip. 2003. Does the US Need a new Bracero Program? Journal of International Law and Policy. Vol 9, No 2, Spring. 127-141.

Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02

Outputs
During the 1990s, Mexicans who used to travel between homes in Mexico and seasonal farm jobs in the US began to settle in the US with their families. This project examines the impacts of immigrant farm workers (1) on the competitiveness of the commodities in which they were employed, (2) the communities in which they live, and (3) prospects for upward mobility for immigrant farm workers and their children.

Impacts
Project results have been widely reported in the media, and are disseminated via the quarterly newsletter Rural Migration News - http:/migration.ucdavis.edu. Several of the seminars held in farming areas receiving immigrants have led to the formation of local commissions to deal with migration and development issues.

Publications

• Martin, Philip and Jonas Widgren. 2002. International Migration: Facing the Challenge. Washington D.C: Population Reference Bureau. Population Bulletin Vol 57, No 1. March.. http://www.prb.org.
• Martin, Philip L. 2002. Immigration, Agriculture and the Border, pp117-128 in Fernandez, Linda and Richard Carson. Eds. 2002. Both Sides of the Border Transboundary Environmental Management Issues Facing Mexico and the United States. Kluwer Academic Publications. www.wkap.nl
• Martin, Philip L and Thomas Straubhaar. 2002. Best Practices to Reduce Migration Pressures. Pp 5-23 in International Migration, Vol 40. No 3. Also Best Practices Options: Mali, pp 87-102, Best Practice Options: Albania, pp 103-118, and Best Practices Options: Turkey, pp 119-131. International Migration. Managing Emerging Migration Patterns. Vol 40.No 3.
• Martin, Philip. 2002. Legalizing Farmworkers: The 2002 Outlook. Migration World. Vol 30, No 3. http://cmsny.org/cmspage2.htm
• Martin, Philip L. 2001. Ellis Island to The Ellis Farm: Immigration Reform and Rural America. Choices: The Magazine of Food, Farm and Resource Issues Fall. Vol 6, No 3.

Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01

Outputs
Mexicans dominate immigrants moving to rural and agricultural areas. Unlike past waves of sojourner migration between Mexico and the US, more Mexican immigrants settled in the US with their children in the 1990s, impacting both their US areas of settlement and the Mexican villages they left behind. This project investigates the changing patterns of Mexico-US migration and its implications for rural and agricultural areas of the US. We are investigating the interactions between expanding farm employment, rising immigration, and poverty and welfare, and the implications of alternative immigration, farm labor, and welfare programs and policies.

Impacts
The changing face project has received widespread attention, due in part to its annual seminars held in places undergoing demographic transformations because of immigration. In addition to journal articles, project findings have been featured on National Public Radio and the Wall Street Journal.

Publications

• Taylor, J. Edward and Philip L. Martin. 2001. Human Capital: Migration and Rural Population Change. In Bruce Gardener and Gordon Rausser. Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, Volume I. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. http://www.elsevier.nl/
• Martin, P. L. 2001. Farm labor : twenty-first century challenges. Agricultural and Resource Economics Update 4(2):8-10.
• Taylor, J. E. 2001. Migration : new dimensions and characteristics, causes, consequences and implications for rural poverty. Chapter in: Current and emerging issues for economic analysis and policy research / Kostas G. Stamoulis, editor. Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Food, agriculture and rural development), pp. 167-201.
• Martin, P. L. and Taylor, J. E. 2001. Managing migration : the role of economic policies. Chapter 4 in: @Global migrants, global refugees : problems and solutions@ / Aristide R. Zolberg and Peter M. Benda, editors. New York : Berghahn Books, 95-120.
• Martin, Philip. 2001. Labor Relations in California Agriculture. Pp 105-122 in Ong, Paul and James Lincoln. Eds. 2001. The State of California Labor. UCLA-UCB. Institute of Industrial Relations.
• Martin, Philip L. and Michael S. Teitelbaum. 2001. The Mirage of Mexican Guest Workers. Foreign Affairs. Vol 80. No.6 November-December. http://www.foreignaffairs.org/Search/document.asp?i=20011101FAEssay57 7 8.xml

Progress 01/01/00 to 12/31/00

Outputs
Unskilled immigrant workers are arriving in rural and agricultural areas to fill jobs in agricultural and related nonfarm industries. This project investigates the impacts of immigrant workers on the industries and communities in which they work, and investigates the prospects for integrating the immigrants and their children who settle in rural and agricultural areas.

Impacts
The changing face project has received widespread attention from local officials, and was the centerpiece of an October 2000 conference in Napa. In additional National Public Radio featured the project's findings, as well as articles in media from the New York Times to the Wall Street Journal.

Publications

• Martin, Philip L. and J. Edward Taylor. 2000. California Farm Workers. California Agriculture. Vol. 54, No 1, 19-25.
• Taylor, J. Edward and Philip L. Martin. 2000. California's New Rural Poverty. California Agriculture. Vol. 54, No 1, 26-32.

Progress 01/01/99 to 12/31/99

Outputs
The hypothesis tested in this project is that the US risks re-creating rural poverty by importing foreign workers with few skills who settle in areas that lack the private and public infrastructure to help immigrants and their children to achieve economic mobility. Rural and agricultural areas, which may be least prepared to provide public and private assistance to immigrants and their children, are receiving some of the neediest immigrants arriving in the US.

Impacts
This project has provided the background materials for city managers, journalists, and researchers investigating whether economic mobility for unskilled rural residents will once again require geographic mobility. The project maintains a web site: http://migration.ucdavis.edu that includes summaries of the research completed, data, and other materials.

Publications

• Martin, P. and Martin, S. 1999. Politics of globalization in Germany and the United States. Chapter in Responses to Globalization in Germany and the U.S. , C. Lankowski, editor. Baltimore, MD:The Johns Hopkins University (AICGS research report; no. 10).
• Martin, Philip L. and Elizabeth Midgley. 1999. Immigration to the United States. Washington D.C. Population Reference Bureau. Vol 54, No 2. June. http://www.prb.org
• Martin, Philip L. 1999. Shortages, Wages and Qualified Workers: Options for Dealing with Nonimmigrants. pp 113-122 in Tomasi, Lydio. Ed. 1999. In Defense of the Alien. New York. Center for Migration Studies.
• Martin, Philip L. and J. Edward Taylor. 2000. California Farm Workers. California Agriculture. Vol. 54, No 1, 19-25.
• Taylor, J. Edward and Philip L. Martin. 2000. California's New Rural Poverty. California Agriculture. Vol. 54, No 1, 26-32.
• Taylor, J. Edward and Philip L. Martin. 2000. Human Capital: Migration and Rural Population Change. In Bruce Gardener and Gordon Rausser. Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, Volume I. Amsterdam: Elsevier. http://www.elsevier.nl/