Source: TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY submitted to
EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION BIOLOGY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES: INTEGRATION OF BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH
Sponsoring Institution
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
Project Status
TERMINATED
Funding Source
HATCH
Reporting Frequency
Annual
Accession No.
0178673
Grant No.
(N/A)
Project No.
TEX08601
Proposal No.
(N/A)
Multistate No.
(N/A)
Program Code
(N/A)
Project Start Date
Apr 16, 2012
Project End Date
Apr 15, 2017
Grant Year
(N/A)
Project Director
Fitzgerald, LE, A.
Recipient Organization
TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY
750 AGRONOMY RD STE 2701
COLLEGE STATION,TX 77843-0001
Performing Department
Wildlife & Fisheries Sciences
Non Technical Summary
Over the next 5 years my CRIS project will have 2 major thrusts: a) Integrative research in Applied Biodiversity Science, b) Evolutionary ecological approaches to conservation of species and communities. The vision of Applied Biodiversity Science (ABS) is to achieve integration between biodiversity research and on-the-ground conservation practices. I co-Direct our ABS program at Texas A&M University that includes a doctoral training program funded by a National Science Foundation IGERT grant. The ABS approach helps elucidate how and why ecosystem functions, biodiversity, human communities and governance systems are interconnected. My long-term research on the conservation biology and ecology of Tupinambis lizards, caimans, alligators, iguanas, and turtles involves studying the ecological interactions between local people and the biodiversity they use for food and income. I have studied basic ecology of species and how people use the biodiversity they live with. I also study the commercial trade in wildlife. I draw from the fields of population and community ecology, landscape ecology, ecological morphology, physiological ecology, and foraging ecology to address the general questions, "What are mechanisms influencing the fit between organism and environment", and "How do community-level processes influence species persistence and distribution of species across the landscape" This program addresses various conservation issues, for example, habitat requirements of single species, determinants of local and regional diversity, or mechanisms determining the fate of invasive and native species. During the next 5-year project period, my work will focus on an assemblage of lizards in Texas and New Mexico, including the endemic dune sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus). The dune sagebrush lizard is proposed for federal listing as endangered by USFWS. It lives in the Permian Basin and its habitat is impacted by development of oil and gas resources. This research program is expanding in scope and includes multiple studies in Texas and New Mexico.
Animal Health Component
(N/A)
Research Effort Categories
Basic
(N/A)
Applied
(N/A)
Developmental
(N/A)
Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)Subject of Investigation (SOI)Field of Science (FOS)Percent
1350899106010%
1350899107010%
1353999106010%
1353999107010%
6053999106010%
6053999107010%
6110899106010%
6110899107010%
6113999106010%
6113999107010%
Knowledge Area
135 - Aquatic and Terrestrial Wildlife; 605 - Natural Resource and Environmental Economics; 611 - Foreign Policy and Programs;

Subject Of Investigation
3999 - Animal research, general; 0899 - Wildlife and natural fisheries, general/other;

Field Of Science
1060 - Biology (whole systems); 1070 - Ecology;
Goals / Objectives
Over the next 5 years my CRIS project will have 2 major thrusts: a) Integrative research in Applied Biodiversity Science, b) Evolutionary ecological approaches to conservation of species and communities. The vision of Applied Biodiversity Science (ABS) is to achieve integration between biodiversity research and on-the-ground conservation practices. I co-Direct our ABS program at Texas A&M University that includes a doctoral training program funded by a National Science Foundation IGERT grant. The ABS approach helps elucidate how and why ecosystem functions, biodiversity, human communities and governance systems are interconnected. My long-term research on the conservation biology and ecology of Tupinambis lizards, caimans, alligators, iguanas, and turtles involves studying the ecological interactions between local people and the biodiversity they use for food and income. I have studied basic ecology of species and how people use the biodiversity they live with. I also study the commercial trade in wildlife. I draw from the fields of population and community ecology, landscape ecology, ecological morphology, physiological ecology, and foraging ecology to address the general questions, "What are mechanisms influencing the fit between organism and environment", and "How do community-level processes influence species persistence and distribution of species across the landscape" This program addresses various conservation issues, for example, habitat requirements of single species, determinants of local and regional diversity, or mechanisms determining the fate of invasive and native species. During the next 5-year project period, my work will focus on an assemblage of lizards in Texas and New Mexico, including the endemic dune sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus). The dune sagebrush lizard is proposed for federal listing as endangered by USFWS. It lives in the Permian Basin and its habitat is impacted by development of oil and gas resources. This research program is expanding in scope and includes multiple studies in Texas and New Mexico.
Project Methods
A key mechanism to achieve the vision of ABS revolves around researchers in biological and social sciences working together and with the same local institutions and actors from the beginning of the process in order to achieve broader impacts of their research. Building a community of scholars in ABS entails bringing perspectives from social science to answer questions relevant to the ABS theme of Ecological Functions and Biodiversity and conversely, sharing methods and insights from biological sciences to inform research in Communities and Governance. An ABS approach to the pervasive issue of overexploitation (with negative feedbacks to poverty, access, and equitability) would therefore employ complementary research approaches in both ecological functions and biodiversity, and communities and governance. A complementary set of studies might use approaches from landscape ecology to understand the spatial and behavioral consequences for species that are hunted for subsistence and commercial use. Three species of tegu lizards of the genus Tupinambis are heavily exploited in Argentina, Paraguay, and parts of Brazil and Bolivia. Tegus have been hunted for food by indigenous peoples and are exploited for their skins which are made into exotic leather accessories, especially cowboy boots in Texas. Implementing the Tupinambis research program in Bolivia is a current focus of my work on Tupinambis in Latin America and will continue during the next 5 years. In the Bolivian Chaco, I work in collaboration with the Bolivian National Park Service. Ecological research on Tupinambis lizards is community-based, involving local leaders at all levels of the science. The indigenous groups are implementing their own management plans for the Tupinambis lizards and representing themselves to the government of Bolivia. This is the first wildlife management program in the country of Bolivia and several others are being implemented for caimans and peccaries based on this model. Evolutionary ecological approaches to conservation of species and communities: My lab is set up as a functional ecology lab. In addition to lab experiments and whole-organism performance trials, methods of analysis include controlling for effects of relatedness among species , and a broad range of statistical analyses. During the next 5 years I will continue research on a community of lizards inhabiting the Mescalero Sands ecosystem of far west Texas and adjacent New Mexico. The ecosystem is inhabited by the endemic Dunes Sagebrush Lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus). This program will encompass conservation needs of the dunes sagebrush lizard throughout its range. The research program is addressing mechanisms operating at many scales, ranging from the scale of microhabitat selection by individual lizards in areas <1m2, up to the scale of long-term, long distance processes that determine the occupancy of distinct localities by lizards across the ecosystem over long time scales.

Progress 04/16/12 to 04/15/17

Outputs
Target Audience:My efforts reached audiences in Texas, USA, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, Mexico during this reporting period. Audiencecomposition ranged from academic settings where I gave many research seminars, to many interviews with media, toconsultation with state and federal agencies in USA, and teaching and mentoring in Paraguay. I reached audiences in localvillage schools, farms, villagers, and NGOs in Botswana. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?Over the past 5 years, I've had 14 graduate students. Half have graduated already. The ABS Program I direct has about 40 graduate students. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?I provided much information to many stakeholder groups and various institutions and the media. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? I made major strides in A) and B). I conducted research and graduate training that resulted in 35 publications and many invited and plenary talks during the past 5 years. This work had major policy impacts.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: van Riper, Carena J., Adam C. Landon, Sarah Kidd, David Toledo, Patrick Bitterman, Lee A. Fitzgerald, Elise F. Granek, Sonia Ibarra, David Iwaniec, Christopher M. Raymond. (2017). A conceptual model of the socio-cultural drivers of ecosystem service valuation and the importance of critical pluralism. Bioscience DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biw170.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Hibbitts, TJ, Fitzgerald L.A., Walkup D., Ryberg W. 2017. Why didnt the lizard cross the road?: Dunes Sagebrush Lizards exhibit road avoidance behaviour. Widlife Research. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WR16184.
  • Type: Book Chapters Status: Published Year Published: 2017 Citation: Fitzgerald L.A., *Walkup D., *Chyn K., *Buchholtz E., *Angeli N., *Parker M. 2017. The future for reptiles: advances and challenges in the Anthropocene. In: Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene. Edited by Dominick DellaSala. Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Schalk, Christopher M., Monta�o, C., Winemiller K.O., Fitzgerald, L.A. 2016. Trophic plasticity, environmental gradients, and food web structure of tropical pond communities. Freshwater Biology doi:10.1111/fwb.12882.
  • Type: Books Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Cacciali P. Scott N.J. Jr., Aquino Ortiz A.L., Fitzgerald L.A., Smith P. 2016. The Reptiles of Paraguay: Literature, Distribution, and an Annotated Taxonomic Checklist. Special Publication of the Museum of Southwestern Biology 11:1-373.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Fitzgerald L.A. and Stronza A.L. (2016). In defense of the ecotourism shield. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 31(2):94-95. (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2015.11.002)


Progress 10/01/15 to 09/30/16

Outputs
Target Audience:My efforts reached audiences in Texas, USA, Paraguay, Mexico, Botswana during this reporting period. Audience composition ranged from academic settings where I gave many research seminars, to many interviews with media, to consultation with state and federal agencies in USA, and teaching and mentoring in Paraguay. I reached audiences in local village schools, farms, villagers, and NGOs in Botswana. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?I am on the graduate committees of 6 masters students in Paraguay.I hired a Program Coordinator for the ABS Program and EEBProgram at Texas A&M. I supervise staff Curator Dr. Toby Hibbitts and have watched his career take off in his own researchon endangered amphibians and reptiles in Texas. I supervise excellent doctoral students: Kristina Chyn (Cornell), ErinBuchholtz (Princeton), Nicole Angeli (Johns Hopkins), Danielle Walkup (Western New Mexico University), Chris Schalk(SUNY-Syracuse). How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Yes, through publication and media. For example the Fitzgerald and Stronza paper in Trends in Ecology and Evolution got press coverage.A repsonse published in the prestigous journal TREE. Fitzgerald and Stronza 2016. In defense of the ecotourism shield. TREE was picked up by several media outlets. Here's one link from science daily: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/01/160108134837.htm; Another one: http://www.counselheal.com/articles/19806/20160113/study-says-ecotourism-does-not-affect-wildlife.htm, there are others too. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Continue this approach and take advantage of opportunities as they arise.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Numerous impactful publications were produced. Several graduate students produced research papers and gavepresentations. I gave a number of invited presentations. The ABSProgram is increasingly established at Texas A&M. The grant supported 27 PhD students with $80,000 packages each. In 2016 about 40 graduate students participate in ABS Program with learning plans on file.My research on the dunes sagebrush lizard resulted in important policy changes at local and national levels. I aminvolved with the important issue of invasive species in Florida, especially the invasion of the tegu lizard.I continued work on human-crocodile conflict in Botswana. I am on the graduate committees of 6 masters students in Paraguay and taught an intensive graduate course in Paraguay.

Publications

  • Type: Books Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Cacciali P. Scott N.J. Jr., Aquino Ortiz A.L., Fitzgerald L.A., Smith P. 2016. The Reptiles of Paraguay: Literature, Distribution, and an Annotated Taxonomic Checklist. Special Publication of the Museum of Southwestern Biology 11:1-373.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2016 Citation: Fitzgerald L.A. and Stronza A.L. (2016). In defense of the ecotourism shield. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2015.11.002)
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2016 Citation: Schalk, Christopher M., Monta�o, C., Winemiller K.O., Fitzgerald, L.A. (2016 online view). Trophic plasticity, environmental gradients, and food web structure of tropical pond communities. Freshwater Biology.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Accepted Year Published: 2016 Citation: van Riper, Carena J., Adam C. Landon, Sarah Kidd, David Toledo, Patrick Bitterman, Lee A. Fitzgerald, Elise F. Granek, Sonia Ibarra, David Iwaniec, Christopher M. Raymond. (in press). A conceptual model of the socio-cultural drivers of ecosystem service valuation and the importance of critical pluralism. Bioscience.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Ryberg W., Fitzgerald L.A. 2015. Landscape composition, not connectivity, determines metacommunity structure across multiple scales. Ecography 38 01-10. doi: 10.1111/ecog.01321.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Fitzgerald L.A., *Treglia M., *Angeli N. Hibbitts T.J., *Leavitt D.J., Subalusky A.L., Lundgren I., Hillis-Starr Z. (2015). Determinants of successful establishment and post-translocation dispersal of a new population of the critically endangered St. Croix ground lizard (Ameiva polops) Restoration Ecology 23(6):776-786. doi: 10.1111/rec.12248.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Treglia ML, Fisher RN, Fitzgerald LA (2015) Integrating Multiple Distribution Models to Guide Conservation Efforts of an Endangered Toad. PLoS ONE 10(6): e0131628. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0131628.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Michelle A. McEachern, Amy A. Yackel Adams, Page E. Klug, Lee A. Fitzgerald, and Robert N. Reed. (2015). Brumation of introduced Tupinambis merianae (Squamata: Teiidae) in southern Florida. Southeastern Naturalist 14(2):319-328.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Schalk, C.M, Fitzgerald, L.A. (2015). Ontogenetic shifts in ambush site selection of a sit-and-wait predator, the Chacoan Horned Frog (Ceratophrys cranwelli, Anura: Ceratophryidae). Canadian Journal of Zoology: (doi: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0320).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Ryberg W., Fitzgerald L.A. (2015). Sand grain size composition regulates subsurface oxygen and distribution of an endemic psammophilic lizard. Journal of Zoology: 295, 116121.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Ryberg W., *Hill M.T., Painter C.W., Fitzgerald L.A. (2015). Linking irreplaceable landforms in a self-organizing landscape to sensitivity of population vital rates for an ecological specialist. Conservation Biology 29(3):888-898. DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12429.


Progress 10/01/14 to 09/30/15

Outputs
Target Audience:Natural resource managers, scientists, and industry stakeholders in the Western Hemisphere and southern Africa. Changes/Problems:There are no major changes that affect my scientific productivity because I am responsible for it. A challenge is increasing grunt work such as filling out forms and web pages. Tasks that used to be done by department staff are pushed onto faculty. The department or university won't even pay my office phone bill. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?I taught a course in Paraguay to 32 masters students in natural resource conservation. I worked with IUCN to prepare the red list of reptile species for the southern cone of South America. I hired a Program Coordinator for the ABS Program and EEB Program at Texas A&M. I supervise staff Curator Dr. Toby Hibbitts and have watched his career take off in his own research on endangered amphibians and reptiles in Texas. I supervise excellent doctoral students: Kristina Chyn (Cornell), Erin Buchholtz (Princeton), Nicole Angeli (Johns Hopkins), Danielle Walkup (Western New Mexico University), Chris Schalk (SUNY-Syracuse). The ABS IGERT has supported 27 PhD students with funding and an additional 15. About half are women and 20% are minority students. The program will produce about 40 PhDs in Applied Biodiversity Science. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?Yes, through publication and media. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Continue this approach and take advantage of opportunities as they arise.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Numerous impactful publications were produced. Several graduate students produced research papers and gave presentations. I gave a number of invited presentations. The NSF IGERT grant ended and was hugely successful. The ABS Program is increasingly established at Texas A&M. The grant supported 27 PhD students with $80,000 packages each. My research on the dunes sagebrush lizard resulted in important policy changes at local and national levels. I became involved with the important issue of invasive species in Florida, especially the invasion of the tegu lizard. I started work on human-crocodile conflict in Botswana.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Fitzgerald L.A., *Treglia M., *Angeli N. Hibbitts T.J., *Leavitt D.J., Subalusky A.L., Lundgren I., Hillis-Starr Z. (2015). Determinants of successful establishment and post-translocation dispersal of a new population of the critically endangered St. Croix ground lizard (Ameiva polops) Restoration Ecology 23: 776-786. doi: 10.1111/rec.12248.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Treglia ML, Fisher RN, Fitzgerald LA (2015) Integrating Multiple Distribution Models to Guide Conservation Efforts of an Endangered Toad. PLoS ONE 10(6): e0131628. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0131628.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Michelle A. McEachern, Amy A. Yackel Adams, Page E. Klug, Lee A. Fitzgerald, and Robert N. Reed. (2015). Brumation of introduced Tupinambis merianae (Squamata: Teiidae) in southern Florida. Southeastern Naturalist 14(2):319-328.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Schalk, C.M, Fitzgerald, L.A. (2015). Ontogenetic shifts in ambush site selection of a sit-and-wait predator, the Chacoan Horned Frog (Ceratophrys cranwelli, Anura: Ceratophryidae). Canadian Journal of Zoology: (doi: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0320).
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Ryberg W., Fitzgerald L.A. (2015). Sand grain size composition regulates subsurface oxygen and distribution of an endemic psammophilic lizard. Journal of Zoology: 295, 116121.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2015 Citation: Ryberg W., *Hill M.T., Painter C.W., Fitzgerald L.A. (2015). Linking irreplaceable landforms in a self-organizing landscape to sensitivity of population vital rates for an ecological specialist. Conservation Biology 29(3):888-898. DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12429.


Progress 10/01/13 to 09/30/14

Outputs
Target Audience: Natural resource managers, scientists, and industry stakeholders in the Western Hemisphere. Changes/Problems: I have not made any changes but continue to take advantage of opportunities as they arise. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? I mentored 6 doctoral students and two masters students and a post-doc. We worked with 8 undergraduate researchers. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Yes, my research has had immediate and direct impact on policy in Texas, New Mexico, and Paraguay. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? I will continue to make accomplishments in the same program areas.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Goal a) was accomplished. The ABS Program is thriving and continues to receive funding from TAMU. ABS Program attracts top graduate students. Goal b) was accomplished. I published 6 articles on ecology, evolution, and conservation in top journals in 2014. I assisted the Minister of Environment in Paraguay with policy issues related to sustainable use of wildlife and international wildlife trade. I gave a course in Paraguay. I continued important work on endangered lizards in Texas and New Mexico.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2014 Citation: Woodward R., Shapiro E., Stronza A.L., Fitzgerald L.A. 2014. Market-based conservation: aligning static theory with dynamic systems. Natural Resources Forum 38:235-247. Ryberg W., Fitzgerald L.A. 2014. Sand grain size composition regulates subsurface oxygen and distribution of an endemic psammophilic lizard. Journal of Zoology. Smolensky N.L., Hurtado L., Fitzgerald L.A. 2014. DNA barcoding of Cameroon samples enhances our knowledge on the distributional limits of putative species of Osteolaemus (African dwarf crocodiles). Conservation Genetics. DOI 10.1007/s10592-014-0639-3. 82. Hurtado L, Santamaria C., Fitzgerald L.A. 2014. The phylogenetic position of the endangered Saint Croix ground lizard Ameiva polops: revisiting molecular systematics of West Indian Ameiva. Zootaxa. 3794 (2): 254262. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3794.2.4. Ryberg W., *Hill M.T., Painter C.W., Fitzgerald L.A. 2014. Linking irreplaceable landforms in a self-organizing landscape to sensitivity of population vital rates for an ecological specialist. Conservation Biology DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12429. Romano A. J., *D. J. Leavitt, *C. M. Schalk, *D. E. Dittmer, and L. A. Fitzgerald. 2014. Vertebrate by-catch of pipeline trenches in the Mescalero-Monahans shinnery sands of southeastern New Mexico. Prairie Naturalist 46(2):104-105.


Progress 01/01/13 to 09/30/13

Outputs
Target Audience: The target audience is academic and conservation institutions in government and private sectors. Changes/Problems: Nothing Reported What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? As mentioned, about 40 doctoral students participate in the ABS program I created and direct. I have taken advantage of several opportunities to give invited lectures and participate on panels and such. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? The products have been disseminated via news media and in journal articles and spoken lectures. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? I will continue work along the same thrusts. We will bring more students to ABS Program. I am starting reseach on human and Nile Crocodile conflict. I will contnue working on conservation and ecology of the dunes sagebrush lizard.

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? Major accomplishments were achieved in work on the ecology and conservation of the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard. The ABS Program continued to thrive in 2013. There are 40 doctoral students participating.

Publications

  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Noss A.J., Monta�o R.R., Soria F., Deem S.L., Fiorello C.V., Fitzgerald L.A. 2013. Chelonoidis carbonaria (Testudines: Testudinidae) activity patterns and burrow use in the Bolivian Chaco. South American Journal of Herpetology 8:19-28.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Monta�o R.R, Cu�llar E., Fitzgerald L.A., *Soria F. *Mendoza F., *Pe�a R., Dosapey T., Sharon L. Deem S.L., Noss A.J. 2013. Ranging patterns by the red-footed tortoise - Geochelone carbonaria (Testudines: Testudinidae) - in the Bolivian Chaco. Patrones de desplazamiento de la peta negra - Geochelone carbonaria (Testudines: Testudinidae) - en el Chaco boliviano. Ecolog�a en Bolivia 48:17-30.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: B�hm, M., Collen, B., Baillie, J.E.M., Bowles, P., Chanson, J., Cox, N., Hammerson, G., Hoffmann, M., Livingstone, S.R., Ram, M., Rhodin, A.G.J., Stuart, S.N., van Dijk, P.P., Young, B., Afuang, L.E., Aghasyan, A., Aguayo, A.G., Aguilar, C., Ajtic, R., Akarsu, F., Alencar, L.R.V., Allison, A., Ananjeva, N., Anderson, S., Andren, C., Ariano-Sanchez, D., Arredondo, J.C., Auliya, M., Austin, C.C., Avci, A., Baker,.P.J., Barreto-Lima, A.F., Barrio-Amoros, C.L., Basu, D., Bates, M.F., Batistella, A., Bauer, A., Bennett, D., B�hme, W., Broadley, D., Brown, R., Burgess, J., Captain, A., Carreira, S., Castaneda, M.R., Castro, F., Catenazzi, A., Cedeno-Vazquez, J.R., Chapple, D., Cheylan, M., Cisneros-Heredia , D.F., Cogalniceanu, D., Cogger, H., Corti, C., Costa, G.C., Couper, P.J., Courtney, T., Crnobrnja-Isailovic, J., Crochet, P.-A., Crother, B., Cruz, F., Daltry, J., Daniels, R.J.R., Das, I., de Silva, A., Diesmos, A.C., Dirksen, L., Doan, T.M., Dodd, K., Doody, J.S., Dorcas, M.E., Duarte de Barros Filho, J., Egan, V.T., El Mouden, E.H., Embert, D., Espinoza, R.E., Fallabrino, A., Feng, X., Feng, Z.-J., Fitzgerald, L., Flores-Villela, O., Franca, F.G.R., Frost, D., Gadsden, H., Gamble, T., Ganesh, S.R., Garcia, M.A., Garcia-Perez, J.E., Gatus, J., Gaulke, M., Geniez, P., Georges, A., Gerlach, J., Goldberg, S., Gonzalez, J.-C.T., Gower, D.J., Grant, T., Greenbaum, E., Grieco, C., Guo, P., Hamilton, A.M., Hare, K., Hedges, S.B., Heideman, N., Hilton-Taylor, C., Hitchmough, R., Hollingsworth, B., Hutchinson, M., Ineich, I., Iverson, J., Jaksic, F.M., Jenkins, R., Joger, U., Jose, R., Kaska, Y., Kaya, U., Keogh, J.S., K�hler, G., Kuchling, G., Kumlutas, Y., Kwet, A., La Marca, E., Lamar, W., Lane, A., Lardner, B., Latta, C., Latta, G., Lau, M., Lavin, P., Lawson, D., LeBreton, M., Lehr, E., Limpus, D., Lipczynski, N., Lobo, A.S., Lopez-Luna, M.A., Luiselli, L., Lukoschek, V., Lundberg, M., Lymberakis, P., Macey, R., Magnusson, W.E., Mahler, D.L., Malhotra, A., Mariaux, J., Maritz, B., Marques, O.A.V., Marquez, R., Martins, M., Masterson, G., Mateo, J.A., Mathew, R., Mathews, N., Mayer, G., McCranie, J.R., Measey, G.J., Mendoza-Quijano, F., Menegon, M., Metrailler, S., Milton, D.A., Montgomery, C., Morato, S.A.A., Mott, T., Munoz-Alonso, A., Murphy, J., Nguyen, T.Q., Nilson, G., Nogueira, C., N��ez, H., Orlov, N., Ota, H., Ottenwalder, J., Papenfuss, T., Pasachnik, S., Passos, P., Pauwels, O.S.G., P�rez-Buitrago, N., P�rez-Mellado, V., Pianka, E.R., Pleguezuelos, J., Pollock, C., Ponce-Campos, P., Powell, R., Pupin, F., Quintero D�az, G.E., Radder, R., Ramer, J., A.R., R., Rasmussen, A.R., Raxworthy, C., Reynolds, R., Richman, N., Rico, E.L., Riservato, E., Rivas, G., Rocha, P.L.B., R�del, M.-O., Rodr�guez Schettino, L., Roosenburg, Ross, J.P., W.M., Sadek, R., Sanders, K., Santos-Barrera, G., Schleich, H.H., Schmidt, B.R., Schmitz, A., Sharifi, M., Shea, G., Shi, H., Shine, R., Sindaco, R., Slimani, T., Somaweera, R., Spawls, S., Stafford , P., Stuebing, R., Sweet, S., Sy, E., Temple, H., Tognelli, M.F., Tolley, K., Tolson, P.J., Tuniyev, B., Tuniyev, S., �z�m, N., van Buurt, G., Van Sluys, M., Velasco, A., Vences, M., Vesel�, M., Vinke, S., Vinke, T., Vogel, G., Vogrin, M., Vogt, R.C., Wearn, O.R., Werner, Y.L., Whiting, M.J., Wiewandt, T., Wilkinson , J., Wilson, B., Wren, S., Zamin, T., Zhou, K. & Zug, G. (2013) The conservation status of the world's reptiles. Biological Conservation 157: 372385.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Monta�o R., *Cu�llar R.L., Fitzgerald L.A., Mendoza F., Soria F., Fiorello C.V., Deem, S.L., Noss A.J. 2013. Activity and Ranging Behavior of the Red Tegu Lizard Tupinambis rufescens in the Bolivian Chaco. South American Journal of Herpetology 8(2):81-88.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Ryberg WA, *Hill MT, Painter CW, Fitzgerald LA. 2013. Landscape Pattern Determines Neighborhood Size and Structure within a Lizard Population. PLoS ONE 8(2): e56856. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056856.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Chan L.M., Archie J.W., Yoder A.D., Fitzgerald L.A. 2013. Review of the systematic status of Sceloporus arenicolus (Degenhardt and Jones 1972) with an estimate of divergence time. Zootaxa 3664 (3): 312320.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Leavitt D.J., Fitzgerald L.A. 2013. Disassembly of a dune-dwelling lizard community due to landscape fragmentation. Ecosphere 4(8):97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/ES13-00032.1.
  • Type: Journal Articles Status: Awaiting Publication Year Published: 2013 Citation: Treglia, M., Valiulis, J and Fitzgerald L.A. (in press). Establishment of the Puerto Rican ground lizard (Ameiva exsul), on St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: a threat to native fauna. Caribbean Journal of Science.
  • Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2013 Citation: Painter, C.1 *Leavitt D.J., Fitzgerald L.A. 2013. The Dunes Sagebrush Lizard. New Mexico Stockman 79(1):31-32. *In error, Leavitt and Fitzgerald were not listed on the printed article.


Progress 01/01/12 to 12/31/12

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Evolutionary ecology and conservation biology of amphibians and reptiles: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented in Bolivia, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I am rekindling new work on the endemic St. Croix Ground Lizard, deemed one of the rarest lizards in the world. My graduate student and I are planning her dissertation research on this lizard. I traveled to Cameroon, Africa to help another doctoral student with our research on ecology and conservation of dwarf crocodiles. I also initiated research on Nile Crocodiles in Botswana. I continue research on the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. With an $800,000 four-year funding agreement with Bureau of Land Management, we are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term scaling of biodiversity in this system. I have a postdoc in the lab and a doctoral student graduated December 2012 with a dissertation on this topic. I am the lead PI and Co-Director of a team of 30 professors from 10 departments in 5 colleges on the NSF-IGERT doctoral training grant. The IGERT grant was funded for $3,000,000. By year six, it will fund 25 doctoral students, amounting to 50 student-years of graduate support at $30,000/year plus all tuition and fees. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included staff curators and interns at the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, undergraduate researchers working in my lab and in the field, and national and international collaborators on all aspects of the projects mentioned. PARTICIPANTS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Ryberg W., Lay D., *Hill M.T., Fitzgerald L.A. 2012. Observations on the nesting ecology and early life-history of the dunes sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus). Western North American Naturalist.
  • Hurtado L.A., C.A. Santamaria, L.A. Fitzgerald. 2012. Conservation genetics of the critically endangered St. Croix ground lizard (Ameiva polops Cope 1863). Conservation Genetics. Conservation Genetics 13: 665-679.
  • Fitzgerald, L.A. 2012. Finding And Capturing Reptiles. Pp.77-88. In R.W. McDiarmid, M. S. Foster, C. Guyer, J. W. Gibbons, and N. Chernoff (eds.), Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Reptiles. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. Fitzgerald, L.A. 2012. Monitoring Exploited Species. Pp.323-331. IN
  • R.W. McDiarmid, M. S. Foster, C. Guyer, J. W. Gibbons, and N. Chernoff (eds.). 2012. Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Reptiles. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
  • Treglia M.L. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2011. Translocation of the St. Croix ground lizard to Buck Island Reef National Monument, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Pp. 109-115. In.
  • Soorae P.S. (ed.) (2011). Global Re-introduction Perspectives: 2011. More case studies from around the globe. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Specialist Group and Abu Dhabi, UAE: Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi. Xiv +250 pp.


Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Evolutionary ecology and conservation biology of amphibians and reptiles: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management, and systematics. I was on a Faculty Development Leave August-December 2010. In Argentina I worked with collaborators on their recent research on tegu lizards. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is also being implemented in Bolivia, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I completed work on the endemic St. Croix Ground Lizard, deemed one of the rarest lizards in the world. In collaboration with Dr. Luis Hurtado at TAMU, we worked on conservation genetics of the species and prepared a manuscript that was published as of January 2012. My graduate student and I also submitted a manuscript for publication on estimating populations of this lizard. I continue research on the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. With an $800,000 four-year funding agreement with Bureau of Land Management, we are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term scaling of biodiversity in this system. I have a new postdoc in the lab and funded graduate students. Our work in San Antonio Missions National Park to study rare reptiles on NPS lands was completed. I am the lead PI and Co-Director of a team of 30 professors from 10 departments in 5 colleges on the NSF-IGERT doctoral training grant, now selecting the 4th cohort of funded doctoral students. The IGERT grant was funded for $3,000,000. By year six, it will fund 25 doctoral students, amounting to 50 student-years of graduate support at $30,000/year plus all tuition and fees. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included staff curators and interns at the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, undergraduate researchers working in my lab and in the field, and national and international collaborators on all aspects of the projects mentioned. PARTICIPANTS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Prestridge, H.L. L.A. Fitzgerald, T.J. Hibbitts. 2011. Trade in non native amphibians and reptiles in Texas: Lessons for better monitoring and implications for species introduction. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 6(3):324 339.
  • Dayton, G. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2011. The advantage of no defense: predation enhances cohort survival in a desert amphibian. Aquatic Ecology 45:325-333.
  • Santamaria C.A. Fitzgerald L.A. Hurtado L.A. 2011. Technical Note. Isolation and characterization of microsatellite DNA markers in the critically endangered St. Croix ground lizard Ameiva polops. Conservation Genetics Resources. DOI 10.1007/s12686-011-9423-6.


Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Evolutionary ecology and conservation biology of amphibians and reptiles: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. I made several trips to Central America and South America to continue projects and develop new ones. With funding from USDI-CAFTA via the US Fish and Wildlife Service, I studied commercial trade in Iguanas and Ctenosaurs in Central America CAFTA countries. I completed wor on the endemic St. Croix Ground Lizard, deemed one of the rarest lizards in the world. We established a new population of the species on Buck Island National Monument and confirmed the lizards have reproduced in their new habitat. My masters student on this project graduated. We are also publishing results from the translocation work and in collaboration with Dr. Luis Hurtado at TAMU we are doing genetics research on this rare lizard. I continue research on the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. With an $800,000 four-year funding agreement with Bureau of Land Management, we are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term scaling of biodiversity in this system. I have a new postdoc in the lab and funded graduate students. Our work in San Antonio Missions National Park to study rare reptiles on NPS lands is wrapping up and the report will be turned in. I am the lead PI and Co-Director of a team of 30 professors from 10 departments in 5 colleges on the NSF-IGERT doctoral training grant, now recruiting the 4th cohort of funded doctoral students. The IGERT grant was funded for $3,000,000. By year six, it will fund 25 doctoral students, amounting to 50 years of graduate support at $30,000/year plus all tuition and fees. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included staff curators and interns at the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, undergraduate researchers working in my lab and in the field, and national and international collaborators on all aspects of the projects mentioned. TARGET AUDIENCES: The research and service reached audiences in the academic disciplines of herpetology, conservation, and wildlife management. Activities also targeted our local, state, national, and international partners in natural resource agencies and non-government organizations. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The work on tegu lizards has been implemented at the national level three countries: Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia. The St. Croix Ground Lizard project resulted in establishing a new population of this federally endangered species in a more secure location on Buck Island National Monument. I graduated a masters student from the project too. The work in Central America provides an assessment of international trade in iguanas and ctenosaur lizards, among the most exploited reptiles in the world for pets. The dunes sagebrush lizard has been proposed for federal listing by USFWS. My research is the basis for what is known about the species, its ecology, distribution and conservation.

Publications

  • Fitzgerald, L.A. and R.E. Nelson. 2011. Thermal biology and temperature-based habitat selection in a large aquatic ectotherm, the alligator snapping turtle, Macroclemys temminckii. Journal of Thermal Biology.
  • *Smolensky, N. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2011. Population variation in dune-dwelling lizards in response to patch size, patch quality, and oil and gas development. Southwestern Naturalist.
  • Fitzgerald, L.A.1 and contributors. 2011. Finding and Capturing Reptiles, Chapter 5 In M.S. Foster et al. (eds.) Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity, Standard Methods for Reptiles. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 1Chapter coordinator.
  • Fitzgerald L.A. (in press). Studying and Monitoring Exploited Species. 2011. Chapter 12 In M.S. Foster et al. (eds.) Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity, Standard Methods for Reptiles. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
  • Laurencio, L.R. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2010. Atlas of distribution and habitat of the dunes sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus) in New Mexico. Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2258. ISBN# 978-0-615-40937-5.
  • *Laurencio, D. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2010. Environmental correlates to herpetofaunal diversity in Costa Rica. Journal of Tropical Ecology 26:521-531.
  • *Smolensky, N. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2010. Distance sampling underestimates population densities of dune-dwelling lizards. Journal of Herpetology 44:372-381.


Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Evolutionary ecology and conservation biology of amphibians and reptiles: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. We made several trips to South America and the Caribbean to continue projects and develop new ones. With funding from National Park Service and US Fish and Wildlife Service, I conducted research on the endemic St. Croix Ground Lizard, deemed one of the rarest lizards in the world. We established a new population of the species on Buck Island National Monument and confirmed the lizards have reproduced in their new habitat. We are continuing population ecology research on the species. I continue research on the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. With an $800,000 four-year funding agreement with Bureau of Land Management, we are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term anthropogenic change in this system. I have a new postdoc in the lab and funded graduate students. I also obtained funding from National Park Service to study rare reptiles on NPS lands in San Antonio Missions. I am the lead PI and Co-Director of a team of 30 professors from 10 departments in 5 colleges on the NSF-IGERT doctoral training grant, now recruiting the 3rd cohort of funded doctoral students. The IGERT grant was funded for $3,000,000. By year six, it will fund 21 doctoral students, amounting to 42 years of graduate support at $30,000/year plus all tuition and fees. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included staff curators and interns at the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection, undergraduate researchers working in my lab and in the field, and national and international collaborators on all aspects of the projects mentioned. TARGET AUDIENCES: The research and service reached audiences in the academic disciplines of herpetology, conservation, and wildlife management. Activities also targeted our local, state, national, and international partners in natural resource agencies and non-government organizations. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Fitzgerald, L.A. and Amanda L. Stronza. 2009. Applied Biodiversity Science: Integrating ecology, culture, and governance for effective conservation. Interciencia 34(8):1-8.
  • Subalusky, A. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2009. Ontogenetic niche shifts in American Alligators cause ecological connectivity in isolated wetland and riverine systems. Biological Conservation 142:1507-1514.
  • Leavitt, DJ and LA Fitzgerald. 2009. Diet of non-native Hyla cinerea in a Chihuahuan desert wetland. Journal of Herpetology 43:541-545.
  • Subalusky, A. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2009. Detection of American Alligators in Isolated, Seasonal Wetlands. Applied Herpetology 6(3):199-210.
  • Chan, L., L.A. Fitzgerald, Zamudio K. 2009. The scale of genetic differentiation in the Dunes Sagebrush-Lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus), an endemic habitat specialist. Conservation Genetics 10:131-142.
  • Fitzgerald, L.A. and C.W. Painter. 2009. Sceloporus arenicolus. Pages 230-233 In. Lizards of the American Southwest: A Photographic Field Guide. Lawrence L.C. Jones and Rob Lovich (eds.).
  • Fitzgerald, L.A. 2009. Sceloporus merriami. in. Lizards of the American Southwest: A Photographic Field Guide. Lawrence L.C. Jones and Rob Lovich (eds.).
  • Fitzgerald, L.A. 2009. Plestiodon tetragrammus. Pages 463-465. Lizards of the American Southwest: A Photographic Field Guide. Lawrence L.C. Jones and Rob Lovich (eds.)


Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. We made several trips to South America and the Caribbean to continue projects and develop new ones. With funding from National Park Service and US Fish and Wildlife Service, I began research on the endemic St. Croix Ground Lizard, deemed one of the rarest lizards in the world. We established a new population of the species on Buck Island National Monument and are continuing population ecology research on the species. I continue research on the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. We are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term anthropogenic change in this system. I obtained significant funds from Bureau of Land Management, New Mexico Game and Fish, and Texas Parks and Wildlife for this research. I am the lead PI and Co-Director of a team of more than 20 professors from 10 departments in 5 colleges on a new NSF-IGERT doctoral training grant , which was funded for $3,000,000(NSF-IGERT: Integrated Graduate Eductation Research Training). The program is named, Applied Biodiversity Science NSF-IGERT Doctoral Program. It will fund 21 doctoral students, amounting to 42 years of graduate support at $30,000/year plus all tuition and fees. I recruited new masters and doctoral students, who will study community-based conservation in Bolivia, lizards in the Caribbean, and community ecology of lizards. My doctoral students and masters student are on-track. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of a diverse pool of masters doctoral and undergraduate researchers, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Dr. Toby Hibbitts, Staff Curator of amphibian and reptile collections (http://herpetology.tamu.edu). Funding sources this past year included National Science Foundation, Bureau of Land Management, Texas Parks and Wildlife, National Park Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Conservation Society, and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. PARTICIPANTS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Chan, L., L.A. Fitzgerald, Zamudio K. 2008. The scale of genetic differentiation in the Dunes Sagebrush-Lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus), an endemic habitat specialist. Conservation Genetics.
  • Fitzgerald, L.A., L. Laurencio, D. Laurencio. 2007. Geographic Distribution and Habitat Suitability of the Sand Dune Lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus) in Texas. Final Report Submitted to Texas Parks and Wildlife Department in fulfillment of requirements on Section 6 project.
  • Smolensky, N.L., and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2007. Population Density Estimates of the Sand Dune Lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus)and movements of gravid females in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem. Technical Report to New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, Share With Wildlife Program.


Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
Evolutionary ecology and conservation biology of amphibians and reptiles: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. We made several trips to South America and the Caribbean to continue projects and develop new ones. I am studying the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. We are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term anthropogenic change in this system. I obtained significant funds from Bureau of Land Management, New Mexico Game and Fish, and Texas Parks and Wildlife for this research. I lead a team of 20 professors from 10 departments in 5 colleges on a successful NSF doctoral training grant proposal, which was funded for $3,000,000 and will fund 21 doctoral students (NSF-IGERT: Integrated Graduate Eductation Research Training). I recruited new masters and doctoral students, who will study community-based conservation in Bolivia, lizards in the Caribbean, and community ecology in Big Bend National Park. My doctoral students and masters student are on-track. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of a diverse pool of masters doctoral and undergraduate researchers, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Dr. Toby Hibbitts, Staff Curator of amphibian and reptile collections (http://herpetology.tamu.edu). Funding sources this past year included National Science Foundation, Bureau of Land Management, Texas Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Conservation Society, and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • No publications reported this period


Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06

Outputs
Evolutionary ecology and conservation biology of amphibians and reptiles: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. We have a paper in press on tegu lizard management, and made several trips to Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Mexico to continue projects and develop new ones. I am studying the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. We are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term anthropogenic change in this system. I obtained significant funds from Bureau of Land Management, New Mexico Game and Fish, and Texas Parks and Wildlife for this research. I lead a team of 20 professors from 10 departments in 5 colleges to submit a proposal for a NSF doctoral training grant (NSF-IGERT). I recruited new masters and doctoral students, who will study community-based conservation in Bolivia, lizards and frogs. My doctoral students and masters student are on-track. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of a diverse pool of masters doctoral and undergraduate researchers, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Dr. Toby Hibbitts, Staff Curator of amphibian and reptile collections (http://herpetology.tamu.edu). Funding sources this past year included National Science Foundation, Bureau of Land Management, Texas Parks and Wildlife, Wildlife Conservation Society, and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Perotti, M.G., L.A. Fitzgerald, L. Moreno, and M. Pueta. (in press). 2006. Predation by dragonflies affects tadpole behavior and growth in Bufo arenarum. Herpetological Natural History and Conservation.
  • Chan, L., Zamudio K., L.A. Fitzgerald. (in press) online 2006. Primer note. Characterization of microsatellite primers for the endemic sand dune lizard, Sceloporus arenicolus. Molecular Ecology Notes.
  • Mieres, M.M. and L.A. Fitzgerald (in press for 2007). Managing and monitoring the tegu trade in Paraguay. Journal of Wildlife Management.
  • Saenz, D. L.A. Fitzgerald, K.A. Baum, R.N. Conner. 2006. Abiotic correlates of anuran calling phenology: the importance of rain, temperature, and season. Herpetological Monographs 20:64-82.
  • Dayton, G. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2006. Habitat suitability models for desert anurans. Biological Conservation 132: 40-49.


Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05

Outputs
Evolutionary ecology and conservation biology of amphibians and reptiles: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for research both locally and internationally. I presented work on tegu lizards on San Andres island Colombia, where the lizards were accidentally introduced in the 1980s. The lizards are voracious omnivores and are causing fear among the public and threatening native fauna. I served on a 4-person blue-ribbon panel to review the entire program for controlling the invasive brown treesnake, that has caused the extinction of Guams birds and cost millions of dollars annually in power outages and threats to other Pacific Islands including Hawaii. I am studying the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. We are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long and short term anthropogenic change in this system. I obtained significant funds from Bureau of Land Management, New Mexico Game and Fish, and Texas Parks and Wildlife for this research. I lead a team of 14 professors from 4 colleges to submit a proposal for a NSF doctoral training grant (NSF-IGERT). I recruited new masters and doctoral students, one who will study sand dune lizards, and one who will study alligators in Texas. My doctoral students and masters student are on track. Doctoral students Daniel Saenz graduated Dec 2004; Gage Dayton in Dec 2005. I wrote a NSF collections improvement grant that was funded. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of 2 doctoral students, 4 masters students, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Dr. Kathryn Vaughan, Staff Curator of amphibian and reptile collections. Funding sources this past year included National Science Foundation, Bureau of Land Management, Texas Parks and Wildlife, and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Mieres, M.M. and L.A. Fitzgerald (in press). 2005. Managing and monitoring the tegu trade in Paraguay. Journal of Wildlife Management.
  • Dayton, G. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2005. Priority effects and desert anuran communities. Canadian Journal of Zoology 83(8)1112-1116.
  • Cruz, F.B., L.A. Fitzgerald, R.E. Espinoza, J.A. Schulte II. 2005. The importance of phylogenetic scale in tests of Bergmann's and Rapoports rules: lessons from a clade of South American lizards. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 18:1559-1574.
  • Ryberg W.A. and Lee A. Fitzgerald. 2005. Herpetofaunal Inventory of Fort Wolters in North Central Texas. Southwestern Naturalist 50(2): 267-272. Colvin, B.A. , M.W. Fall, L.A. Fitzgerald, L.L. Loope. 2005. Review of brown treesnake problems and control programs: Report of observations and recommendations. At the request of the Office of Insular Affairs, USDI for the Brown Treesnake Control Committee. March 2005.


Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04

Outputs
Conservation Strategies for Reptiles and Amphibians: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for international activities. I initiated work on tegu lizards on San Andres island Colombia, where the lizards were accidentally introduced in the 1980s. The lizards are voracious omnivores and are causing fear among the public and threatening native fauna. I also attended an international biodiversity task force meeting. I am studying the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. We are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term anthropogenic change in this system. I prepared and submitted a proposal to USDA this year, but was declined. I participated in biodiversity monitoring work in the Grand Canyon, which resulted in collaborative opportunities to analyze the herpetological data and participate in publications. Field and lab research is still carried out at Big Bend National Park, and on the amphibian community in National Forests in East Texas. I recruited 2 masters students, one who will study sand dune lizards, and one who will study alligators in southwest Georgia. My doctoral students and masters student are on-track. Daniel Saenz graduated Dec 2004. I was team leader in the project, Visualizing Biodiversity, for the NSF-funded Information Technology in Teaching and Learning Science, with co-professors from WFSC, ENTO, and GEOG. This course was part of a NSF-funded information technology center for teaching and learning. Our project was very positively reviewed by all concerned parties. I submitted an NSF collections improvement grant and we received news that the project will be funded. Along with myself, the herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of 3 doctoral students, 3 masters students, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Dr. Kathryn Vaughan, Staff Curator of amphibian and reptile collections. Funding sources this past year included National Science Foundation, Texas Army National Guard, and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Ceballos C. and L.A. Fitzgerald 2004. Native and exotic turtle trade in Texas. Wildlife Society Bulletin Fall 2004 32 (3): 881-892.
  • Hibbitts, T.J. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2004. Morphological and ecological convergence in two Natricine snakes. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society (in press).
  • Ryberg W.A. and Lee A. Fitzgerald. 2004. Herpetofaunal Inventory of Fort Wolters in North-Central Texas. Southwestern Naturalist (in press).
  • Fitzgerald, L.A., C.W. Painter, A. Reuter, and C. Hoover. 2004. Harvest and trade in reptiles of the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion. TRAFFIC North America, World Wildlife Fund. (Peer-reviewed).
  • Ryberg W.A., L.A. Fitzgerald, R.L. Honeycutt, J.C. Cathey, and Toby J. Hibbitts. 2004. Vertebrate inventory of Richland Creek Wildlife Management Area in eastern Texas. Southwestern Naturalist (in press).
  • Fitzgerald, L.A. 2004. Amphibians and Reptiles. Chapter 10, In N. Wilkins (ed.), Texas Master Naturalists Curriculum Book.


Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03

Outputs
Conservation Strategies for Reptiles and Amphibians: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program is focused on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity and conservation biology of herps. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. Field work on community-based management in Bolivia is being implemented, using studies of tortoises and tegu lizards as model projects. I had a productive year for international activities. I initiated work on tegu lizards on San Andres island Colombia, where the lizards were accidentally introduced in the 1980s. The lizards are voracious omnivores and are causing fear among the public and threatening native fauna. I also attended an international biodiversity task force meeting for DIVERSITAS in Paris. I am studying the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. We are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term anthropogenic change in this system. I prepared and submitted a proposal to Ecological Rates of Change program at NSF for this work, but was declined. I will re-submit a similar proposal to USDA this year. I participated in biodiversity monitoring work in the Grand Canyon, which resulted in collaborative opportunities to analyze the herpetological data and participate in publications. Field and lab research is still carried out at Big Bend National Park, and on the amphibian community in National Forests in East Texas. I supervised biodiversity surveys at Fort Wolters Army National Guard Base. This work was finished and the reports were turned in. I recruited 2 masters students, one who will study tortoises in Bolivia. My doctoral students and masters student are on-track. I am team leader in the project, Visualizing Biodiversity, for the NSF-funded Information Technology in Teaching and Learning Science, with co-professors from WFSC, ENTO, and GEOG. This course is part of a NSF-funded information technology center for teaching and learning. Our project was very positively reviewed by all concerned parties. I submitted an NSF collections improvement grant and we are waiting for news. I participated in the NSF UMEB project and mentored a student throughout the summer. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of 3 doctoral students, two masters students, the Herpetology Independent Study Group, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Dr. Kathryn Vaughan, Staff Curator of amphibian and reptile collections. Funding sources this past year included National Science Foundation, Texas Army National Guard, and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Fitzgerald, L.A. 2003. Whiptail lizards, tegus and allies. Grzimeks Animal Life Encyclopedia. Fitzgerald, L.A. (2003). Microteiids (Gymnophthalmidae). Grzimeks Animal Life Encyclopedia.
  • Ceballos and Fitzgerald, L.A. 2003. Native and exotic turtle trade in Texas. Wildlife Society Bulletin.


Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02

Outputs
Conservation Strategies for Reptiles and Amphibians: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity is expanding. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. A masters student from Paraguay completed her thesis on the harvest of exploited lizards. I conducted workshops on community based management in Bolivia, and this work is being implemented there. The result will be that tegu lizards will be the only managed wildlife in Bolivia. I made a trip to Bolivia to implement sustainable use programs. Another result of Bolivia work is that I now have a team of herpetological colleagues in Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia, and we are developing several funding proposals to write a book on the herpetofauna of the Gran Chaco Ecoregion. My Argentine Postdocs funded by CONYCET and Fulbright finished their 2.5 year terms here and returned to Argentina. In Texas we are studying factors influencing species persistence in desert systems and interactions between native and invasive species. Field and lab research is carried out at Big Bend National Park, and on the amphibian community in National Forests in East Texas. A masters student finished his thesis on population differences in American alligators, based on microsatellite variation in the DNA molecule and published the results in Journal of Experimental Zoology. I am studying the endemic sand dune lizard in the Mescalero Sands Ecosystem in New Mexico and Texas. We are studying natural history of the lizard community, geomorphology of the Mescalero Sands, and long- and short-term anthropogenic change in this system. I presented this work to the State Land Commissioner of New Mexico, with oil and gas industry executives in attendance. We are preparing a NSF proposal to the Ecological Rates of Change Program. We obtained NSF funding for the Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collections Herpetology Division, NSF funding for Undergraduate Mentoring in Environmental Biology, and I am team leader in the project, Visualizing Biodiversity, for the NSF-funded Information Technology in Teaching and Learning Science. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of 4 doctoral students, one masters student, the Herpetology Independent Study Group, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Dr. Kathryn Vaughan, Staff Curator of amphibian and reptile collections. Funding sources include National Science Foundation, Wildlife Conservation Society, World Wildlife Fund, National Science Foundation, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, US Geological Survey, and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Impacts
The impact of this program is contributions to basic and applied ecological questions, and to sustainable development in Texas, New Mexico, and South America.

Publications

  • Ryberg, W.A., L.A. Fitzgerald, R.L. Honeycutt, and J.C. Cathey. 2002. Genetic relationships of American Alligator populations across scales of ecological and geographic separation. Journal of Experimental Zoology 294(4):325-333.


Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01

Outputs
Conservation Strategies for Reptiles and Amphibians: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. My program on sustainable use approaches to conservation of biodiversity is expanding. For example, research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. We now have 9 years of population monitoring data from Paraguay and a masters student from Paraguay is completing her thesis on harvest models of exploited lizards. I co-conducted a workshop on community based management in Paraguay in August 2001. This work is being implemented in Bolivia, and the result will be that tegu lizards will be the only managed wildlife in Bolivia. I made 2 trips to Bolivia to implement sustainable use programs. The trips to Paraguay and Bolivia was a great success and we are developing several funding proposals as a result. Work is proceeding well on the problem of worldwide amphibian decline. We are studying factors influencing species persistence in desert systems and interactions between native and invasive species. Field and lab research is carried out at Big Bend National Park, Texas, and on the impact of introduced bullfrogs on native leopard frogs in New Mexico. Additionally, the suitability of forest mitigation ponds for amphibian species are being investigated in National Forests in East Texas. In eastern Texas, we finished survey work on distribution and habitat selection of alligator snapping turtles, and are in the process of synthesizing 4 years of data. A masters student graduated and finished her thesis on the commercial trade in native and exotic turtles in Texas. Work is progressing according to plan on population differences in American alligators, based on microsatellite variation in the DNA molecule. We have a paper submitted that summarizes part of that work. Two CONICET and Fulbright funded postdocs arrived from Argentina are working on lizard ecology in North and South America and on amphibian ecology and conservation. These postdocs will stay at TAMU through summer 2002. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of 2 postdocs, 6 graduate students, the Herpetology Independent Study Group, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Curator of amphibian reptile and fish museum collections Dr. Kathryn Vaughan. Funding sources include Wildlife Conservation Society, World Wildlife Fund, National Science Foundation, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, and US Geological Survey.

Impacts
Program has social and environmental impacts. We are on the forefront of creating sustainable management systems for exploited natural resources.

Publications

  • Dayton, G.H. and L.A. Fitzgerald. 2001. Competition, predation, and the distribution of four desert anurans Oecologia 129:430-435.
  • Fitzgerald, L.A., C.W. Painter, A. Reuter, and C. Hoover. 2001. Harvest and trade in reptiles of the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion. Final Report to TRAFFIC North America, World Wildlife Fund.


Progress 01/01/00 to 12/31/00

Outputs
Conservation Strategies for Reptiles and Amphibians: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. Research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. We now have 9 years of population monitoring data from Paraguay and a masters student from Paraguay is completing her thesis on harvest models of exploited lizards. I have made 3 trips to that country for this work and 2 trips are scheduled for 2001. This work is being implemented in Bolivia, and the result will be that tegu lizards will be the only managed wildlife in Bolivia. We are continuing work on tegu systematics and expanding this work to include genetic analyses of all members of this lizard family. This work will lead to development of molecular markers important for forensic identification of lizard hides. I lead an interdisciplinary group professors and staff from Recreation, Parks, and Tourism Sciences; Rangeland Ecology and Management; International Agriculture Programs, Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences to Paraguay to initiate sustainable development projects in the Mbaracayu watershed, recently declared a Biosphere Reserve. The trip was a great success and we are developing several funding proposals as a result. Work is proceeding well on the problem of worldwide amphibian decline. We are studying factors influencing species persistence in desert systems and interactions between native and invasive species. Field and lab research is carried out at Big Bend National Park, Texas, and on the impact of introduced bullfrogs on native leopard frogs in New Mexico. Additionally, the suitability of forest mitigation ponds for amphibian species are being investigated in National Forests in East Texas. In eastern Texas work is continuing on distribution and habitat selection of alligator snapping turtles. Work is progressing according to plan on population differences in American alligators, based on microsatellite variation in the DNA molecule. Two CONICET and Fulbright funded postdocs arrived from Argentina to work on lizard ecology in North and South America and on amphibian ecology and conservation. These postdocs will stay at TAMU for 2 years. Along with myself, The herpetology program at Texas A&M presently consists of 2 postdocs, 7 graduate students, the Herpetology Independent Study Group, Professor and Curator Emeritus James R. Dixon, and Curator of amphibian reptile and fish museum collections Dr. Kathryn Vaughan. Funding sources include Wildlife Conservation Society, World Wildlife Fund, National Science Foundation, Texas Parks and Widlife Department, and US Geological Survey

Impacts
This program has notable social and environmental impacts. Internationally, we are on the forefront of creating sustainable management systems for exploited natural resources that benefit not only the species themselves but also the people who depend on them. In Texas and the southwestern USA our work on endangered species and communities leads to policy changes that are designed to protect species and their habitats while providing for the needs of society.

Publications

  • Vega, L.E., Bellagamba, P.J., and Fitzgerald, L.A. 2000. Long-term effects of anthropogenic habitat disturbance on a lizard assemblage inhabiting coastal dunes in Argentina. Canadian Journal of Zoology 78: 1653-1660.


Progress 01/01/99 to 12/31/99

Outputs
Conservation Strategies for Reptiles and Amphibians: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. Research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management and systematics. We now have 8 years of population monitoring data from Paraguay and a masters student from Paraguay is completing her thesis on harvest models of exploited lizards. This work is being implemented in Bolivia for the first time; our second trip is scheduled for January 2000. In Paraguay in October we hosted a workshop and roundtable on tegu lizard management at the 4th Amazonian Wildlife Congress. We are continuing work on tegu systematics and expanding this work to include genetic analyses of all members of this lizard family (Teiidae). This work will lead to development of molecular markers important for forensic identification of lizard hides. We were funded to take an interdisciplinary group to Paraguay and initiate a major project on sustainable development in the Mbaracayu watershed. Also in South America we are beginning work on sustainable use of South American river turtles in Colombia. We began work on the problem of worldwide amphibian decline with a study in Big Bend National Park, Texas. We are studying factors influencing species persistence in desert systems. Also in Texas work is continuing on distribution and habitat selection of alligator snapping turtles. Additionally, work began on population differences in American alligators. The suitability of forest mitigation ponds for amphibian species are being investigated in National Forests in East Texas.

Impacts
To develop sound conservation and management strategies for amphibians and reptiles based on basic ecological principles and studies.

Publications

  • Fitzgerald, L.A. and Painter, C.W. 1999. in press. Rattlesnake commercialization: long-term trends, issues, and implications for conservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin.


Progress 01/01/98 to 12/31/98

Outputs
Conservation strategies for Reptiles and Amphibians: Integration of Basic and Applied Research. Research and management of tegu lizards in South America is progressing in the areas of field ecology, population management, and systematics. We now have 7 years of data on the harvest of lizards from Paraguay, and are creating harvest models for these exploited lizards. Radio tracking studies are ongoing in Paraguay. Population studies and management systems developed to manage tegu lizards in Argentina and Paraguay are currently being implemented in the country of Bolivia; our first trip there took place in December 1998. We produced the first phylogeny of the tegu lizards, using DNA sequence data. This work is being expanded to include other lizard genera in the same family. The molecular systematics work will lead to molecular markers important for forensic identification of lizard hides. In Texas, work is continuing on habitat selection and distribution of alligator snapping turtles, focusing on eco-physiological factors that may constrain where these rare turtles can occur. Additionally, forest mitigation ponds in National Forests in East Texas are being studied for their suitability for amphibian populations, and new work will begin on conservation of amphibian species in Big Bend National Park in 1999.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

  • Fitzgerald,L.A.,Cook,J.A.,and Aquino,A.L. 1998. (in press). The molecular phylogenetics and conservation of Tupinambis(Sauria: Teiidae). Copeia.
  • Fitzgerald,L.A.,Cruz,F.and Perotti, G. 1998.(in press). Phenology of a lizard assemblage in the dry chaco of Argentina. Journal of Herpetology.
  • Frost D.R., Crafts, H.M. Fitzgerald, L.A. and Titus,T.A. 1998.(in press) Geographic Variation, species recognition, and molecular evolution of cytochrome oxidase I in the Tropidurus spinulosus complex (Iguania: Tropiduridae). Copeia 1998.
  • Painter, C.W. and Fitzgerald, L.A. 1998. (in press). Crotalus atrox. Morphology. Herpetological Review. Fitzgerald. L.A. 1998. Book review: Harry W. Greene. Snakes: the evolution of mystery in nature. Quarterly Review of Biology 73:365-366.