Progress 10/01/05 to 09/30/11
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Okara is a byproduct of the soybean and tofu production process; it is the insoluble residue that remains after soymilk/tofu production. Ruminants have microbes in the rumen that ferment feed components in the diet. The analysis of okara has shown that it may provide ruminants animals with adequate dietary energy and protein levels. Weekly samples (52 samples) of okara were taken from a SBM processing plant in Bridgeton, NJ. Samples were sent to the Dairy One Laboratory in Ithaca, NY and analyzed for dietary components. The second portion of this project was an in situ study with a rumen-fistulated Holstein on the Rutgers Animal farm to determine the rumen degradability of okara. In situ studies involve the use of nylon bags with a 40 plus/minus 15 micron pore size to allow passage of microbes and digesta but small enough to retain feed. Feed was placed in nylon bags (1.5 times 3 in.), heat-sealed to insure that none of the okara would escape into the rumen, and placed in the rumen. Soybean meal was the control. The nylon bags were placed in the rumen for 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, and 48 hours, with 4 replicates per treatment and time. Samples were sent to Dairy One. The final portion of the project was a growth trial with 75 pound Dorset lambs to determine if okara was an acceptable feed. A 2X2 factorial treatment design was used with two types (SBM and okara) and two levels of protein. There were 4 replicates per treatment. Each group was fed a pre-determined amount of SBM or okara per day for 8 weeks along with a grain mix and hay. Okara was top-dressed on okara diets. Lambs were individually housed and fed water and hay ad libitum. Okara was stored in a freezer prior to feeding. The sheep required a daily dry matter intake of about 3.0 % of body weight. Diets contained 12% protein. Protein level was reduced slightly from requirements in order to prevent overfeeding of protein. Lambs were fed a low quality grass hay in order to reduce the protein content of the diets. Hay intake was assumed to be .5% of body weight per day. Diets were formulated to contain 12% CP and 78.6% TDN. The okara samples taken from the processing plant averaged 86.1% moisture on an as fed basis All other components averaged on a DM basis: 4.2% CP, 14.3% soluble crude protein, 21.4% ADF, 32.2% NDF, 11.0% CF, 84.4% TDN, .94 mcal/lb NEL, .99 mcal/lb NEM, .69 mcal/lb NEG, .36% Ca, .4% P, .14% Mg, .92% K, .23% Na, .25% S, 72.5 ppm Fe, 22.2 ppm Zn, 4.6 ppm Cu, 23.9 ppm Mn, and .80 ppm Mo. Bags in the rumen fistulated study were removed after digestion and disappearance of components was calculated. Okara had a lower percent dry matter degradation during all 48 hours compared to the control. It also had a lower crude protein degradation compared to soybean for the entirety of the rumen digestion trial. These results indicate okara may have bypass protein value. In the lamb feeding study, control diet lambs gained an average of 7.1 kg and lambs on the okara diet gained an average of 8.7 kg. The lambs on the okara diet had a higher average feed intake compared to the lambs on the SBM diet. PARTICIPANTS: Michael Westendorf, Rutgers Coopperative Extension Angie Indriolo, Rutgers University Honors Student Jacquelyn Tong, Rutgers University Honors Student Dave Lee, Salem County Extension Agent Jim Wohlt, Rutgers University Professor TARGET AUDIENCES: Livestock producers Nutritionists PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.
Impacts
This project has involved the study of two non-traditional feedstuffs as animal feed. The first of these was chitin, poly-N-acetylglucosamine, one of the most abundant natural polymers on earth. It is structurally similar to cellulose. A series of studies was undertaken to determine the utilization of semi-purified β-chitin (crab shell origin) or crickets that have an exoskeleton high in chitin (measured ADF = 10%, Crude Fiber = 6.3%). Rumen disappearance of chitin was examined using a fistulated cow, DM, CP, CF, NDF and ADF were used to determine disappearance. Disappearance of all components increased over a 48 hour time period. This was followed with two experiments using white Leghorn pullets (n=30) for a growth trial lasting five weeks and an egg-laying study using leghorn hens (n-30). During the growth trial, intake, growth and feed/gain ratios were calculated for each diet. The 10% cricket diet yielded lower feed/gain ratios than the basal control for all weeks [3.04 vs. 3.14, 3.01 vs. 3.22, 3.55 vs. 4.02, and 4.00 vs. 4.10 (n=6)] respectively. The birds fed the basal control consumed the most of feed during the trial (37.6g/bird/day). The value of studying chitin was that it has been used previously in animal diets; crickets were chosen for study because of ease of inclusion in poultry diets. There is the added question of what influence do the presence of insects and their exoskeletons have upon animal feed supplies and if present can they be digested. Okara is a byproduct feed and was discussed extensively in the output above that is currently being fed to ruminant animals and has also been fed to pigs and chickens. It has value as a feedstuff as has been shown in this current study. These two projects, the use of chitin-containing feeds and okara as feedstuffs, focused on the use of available byproduct feedstuffs. These will provide other sources of feed for livestock producers. This may enhance the sustainability of livestock farms by developing and delivering practical and effective feeding solutions to production needs of small livestock producers.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Okara is a byproduct of the soymilk and tofu production process. One kilogram of soybeans produces approximately 1.1 kg of okara (Khare et al., 1995). The preservation of okara is a difficult task. Okara containing 25.3% moisture had good rehydration properties but a short shelf life of half a month at 5 degree C (Tadano et al., 1981). Okara with 7.4% moisture had poor rehydration properties but a longer shelf life of 8 months at 5 degree C (Tadano et al., 1981). The composition of okara depends on the amount of water extracted from ground soybeans and the amount of water that is added to it; the proximate composition of okara consists of 84.50% moisture, 4.73% protein, 1.50% lipid, 7.00% sugars, 1.5% fibers, .4% ash, and at a pH of 6.71 (Tadano et al., 1981). Nakayama et. al's (1997) elementary analysis of okara shows that it consists of 46.3% carbon, 6.99% hydrogen, 3.99% nitrogen, .25% sulfur, and 3.59% ash on a dry matter basis. Okara has high protein degradability and has higher protein efficiency than soy milk. Protein from okara has been shown to have a degradability of 80% in vitro (Khare et al., 1993). The protein efficiency of okara is 2.71 while the protein efficiency of soy milk is 2.11 (Liu, 1997); the protein efficiency ratio is found by dividing an animal's gain in body mass by the amount of protein intake. Therefore, the greater the amount of weight gain and the lesser the amount of protein intake, the greater the protein efficiency. Ruminants or foregut fermenters have anaerobic microbes in their rumen that require fermentable carbohydrates in order to produce volatile fatty acids. Volatile fatty acids include acetate, propionate, and butyrate. Butyrate is required for proper rumen development in young calves. Results from Van der Reit et al (1989). reported that okara contains enough complex fibrous carbohydrates to support anaerobic microbes in the ruminant digestive system. Monthly samples of okara were taken from March 2009 to March 2010. This experiment involved collecting weekly samples of okara from the Okara production plant in Cumberland County, NJ. A total of 52 samples were taken from March 2009 to March 2010 and sent to Dairy One. The results from Dairy One Laboratories in Ithaca, NY showed that the okara samples consisted of an average of 86.1% moisture on an as fed basis; the okara consisted of 34.22% crude protein, 14.31% soluble crude protein, 21.35% ADF, 32.18% NDF, 11.02% crude fat, 84.38% TDN, .94% NEL, .99% NEM, .69% NEG, .36% calcium, .4% phosphorous, .14% magnesium, .92% potassium, .23% sodium, .25% sulfur, 72.54% iron, 22.19% zinc, 4.62% copper, 23.92% manganese, .77% mobydenum on a dry matter basis. Follow up studies will include a rumen degradability study and a growth study. PARTICIPANTS: Michael Westendorf - Rutgers University Extension Specialist Dave Lee - Rutgers University County Extension Agent Penny Bell- Rutgers University Extension Assistant Jacquelyn Tong - Rutgers University Honors Student TARGET AUDIENCES: Ruminant Producers, especially dairy producers is the primary target audience. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Not relevant to this project.
Impacts
Initial findings support the use of Okara as a feedstuff for use in ruminant diets. It appears to have a high level of protein and may also be low in rumen degradability, a desirable characteristic in ruminants. Further results should further demonstrate potentials for Okara.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09
Outputs
OUTPUTS: This project is focused on the use of non-traditional products as animal feeds, many of these are from other food industries, such as food processing, grain milling, and brewing and distillation. The goal is to create more sustainable systems in which new feeds can be used for animals. These newer foods will decrease the use of feeds that may be used in the human food chain. Okara is a byproduct of soybean processing for the production of soymilk. There is a production plant in Bridgeton, NJ. In the southern part of the state there are several dairymen feeding OKARA as a protein and energy supplement. Okara is heated during extraction and is high in protein, low in soluble protein and has a high fat content. Some of the goals of this project are 1. To sample and analyze Okara produced at the Bridgeton plant. Current analysis has been completed at the DairyOne Laboratories in Ithaca, NY. 2. Determine digestibility, both in vitro and in vivo of Okara. 3. Conduct a feeding study with Okara incorporated in ruminant diets. 4. Determine the economic value of Okara as a byproduct feed for incorporation into livestock diets. PARTICIPANTS: David Lee, Rutgers Cooperative Extension Harriet Bell, Rutgers Cooperative Extension White Wave Foods of Bridegeton, NJ TARGET AUDIENCES: Dairy and livestock producers Extension personnel PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
Okara is a byproduct of soybean processing for the production of soymilk. There is a production plant in Bridgeton, NJ. In the southern part of the state there are several dairymen feeding OKARA as a protein and energy supplement. Okara is heated during extraction and is high in protein, low in soluble protein and has a high fat content. Initial results of Okara analysis are below. These results are from weekly samples over a 6 month period. Analysis was conducted at the DairyOne Laboratory in Ithaca, NY. Moisture (As Fed) 85.8%, Crude Protein 31.9%, Soluble CP 13.3%, ADF 22.0%, NDF 32.0%, Crude Fat 12.3%, NeL 0.97 (Mcal/lb), Ca 0.39%, P 0.39%.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Two projects are underway. Okara is a byproduct of soybean processing, particularly soybeans processed to make soy milk. It is high in moisture, doughy in consistency, and light in color. It is relatively high in protein. Similar products, such as brewer's grains and distiller's grains, can make excellent ruminant feed and is often fed on dairy farms in New Jersey. There is limited data available about the nutritional value of okara when fed to ruminants. This project will help to determine the nutrient content of okara. A secondary goal is to establish the feeding value of okara. Hypothesis: Okara, from soybean processing, has nutritional content that will be valuable in ruminant diets. Objectives: 1. Determine the nutritional content of okara produced from soybean processing. 2. Determine feeding value of okara. Methods: 1. Collect weekly samples at a New Jersey soybean processing/okara production plant. 2. During summer months make routine (no more than 10) on-farm samples to determine stability in hotter weather. 3. Complete in-situ analysis at Rutgers Animal farms using a fistulated heifer. This will determine ruminal disappearance of the product. 4. Complete a Heifer feeding study. A recent study of wet brewer's grains has been completed in the laboratory of Dr. J. E. Wohlt. A Unity Scientific SpectraStar TM 2400 Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopic (NIRS) Analyzer will be used to determine the reflectance and absorbance of light for each of these dried brewer's grain samples. The brewer's grain has already been analyzed by wet chemistry methods in a commercial laboratory. The reflective spectra of all desired constituents will be determined. The Near Infrared Spectra of the samples will be regressed against the wet chemistry values. This regression analysis will result in a series of calibration equations which will be used to calibrate the Unity SpectraStar to analyze brewers grain samples in which the analysis is not know. When used for determination of nutrients such as dry matter, crude protein, fiber, and fat present in feedstuffs, NIR is has been shown to be useful in both commercial and regulatory laboratories. In the case of animal feeds, forages, turf, biofuel crops and even animal manures, NIR spectral analysis takes the place of wet chemistry values, and decreases the cost while speeding up the time for analysis. It is the goal of this project to calibrate an NIR machine for determining the nutrient content of brewer's grains. PARTICIPANTS: Dr. Michael Westendorf, Rutgers Cooperative Extension Dr. Jim Wohlt, Rutgers University, School of Environmental and Biological Sciences Dave Lee, Rutgers Cooperative Extension, Salem County Agricultural Agent TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
Okara study: 1. Information about the nutrient content of okara. 2. Better information about the stability, feeding value, and economics of okara. 3. Informational bulletins/materials about the use of okara in animal diets. 4. Outreach meeting about okara use. Brewer's grain study: 1. NIR machine calibrated for brewer's grain. 2. Validation to determine effectiveness in diet formulation. 3. Informational bulletins/materials about the use of brewer's grain in animal diets.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Apparent chitin digestibility was examined using a fistulated bovine heifer housed at the Rutgers University bovine facility. The cow was fed a forage-based diet, and only interrupted during insertion or removal of nylon bags. Two forms of chitin were used in the study, a commercially available form, probably originating from crab shells, and chitin from crickets (whole crickets dried, ground, and used). The cow was given free choice food and water. The anaerobic environment was maintained and only interrupted during insertion and removal of nylon bags. A total of 56 tared nylon bags were used in the study. Each nylon bag was sealed and marked, designating the time entering the fistulae and contents. The nylon bags were placed in a moisture free air-dessicator to maintain dry matter composition. Bags were incubated for 0, 0.1, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 48 hours. Post-incubated bags were placed in a water bath for fifteen minutes and then frozen (-15 C) until assay. Upon removal the
bags were weighed, washed thoroughly in a water bath (40 C), and placed in an oven at a constant temperature of 60 C for 48 hours. Nylon bags were analyzed for DM, CP, ADF, NDF, and ADICP. Values for DM digestion were greater (P<.05) for the cricket chitin (35.97%) than the commercially purchased chitin (3.42%). CP and NDF were also significantly greater for the cricket chitin than the commercially available form. Extent of digestion of ADF was similar for the two sources. The extent of digestion of all components increased over time. The most rapid loss of cricket chitin DM and CP occurred within the first 0.1 hrs indicating rapid solubilization. There was no significance of ADF (p<0.05) at times 0, 0.1, 6, 12, and 18 between cricket chitin and commercially purchased chitin. ADICP was not different for cricket chitin between times 0.1, 6, 18, and 24. Cricket chitin ADICP was statistically significant from other time groups at 0 and 48 hours. A study was also conducted using white
Leghorn pullets (n=30) for a growth trial and total excreta collection lasting five weeks. Five diets were prepared to meet the needs of growing pullets. A diet containing 5% crickets to provide chitin, 10% crickets to provide chitin, a 5% control formulated without crickets to be similar to the 5% cricket diet, and a 10% control formulated without crickets to be similar to the 10% cricket diet. A commercial pullet grower provided a basal control diet. DM, CP, CF, NDF and ADF were used to evaluate chitin breakdown and apparent digestibility for all experiments. Feed:gain ratios were calculated for each diet. The 10% cricket diet had similar performance to any of the control groups and yielded lower feed/gain ratios than the basal control for all weeks (3.04 vs. 3.14, 3.01 vs. 3.22, 3.55 vs. 4.02, and 4.00 vs. 4.10), respectively. The birds fed the basal control consumed the greatest amount of feed during the total excreta collection phase of the trial (37.6g/bird/day) and also
excreted the most (154.6 g/wk/pen). Chromic oxide analysis on intestinal contents and excreta were submitted for analysis and results are pending. Statistical analysis on diet groups has yet not been performed.
PARTICIPANTS: Michael L. Westendorf, Rutgers University Extension Specialist, Project Director Angela Indriolo, Rutgers University Cook College Student, responsibilities were as a George H. Cook Honors Student
TARGET AUDIENCES: Sustainable and small farmers who utilize forage resources to feed animals. Small farm and back yard poultry farmers.
PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Although this project originated focusing more on ruminants, other better applications may exist with poultry. We switched to chickens for the study described above and a variety of attractive follow-ups are possible. Since grazing poultry consume insects, I hope that we can determine the extent of insect contributions to the diet. This has effects as we consider sustainable systems for poultry that have positive effects on soil, forages, and the environment.
Impacts
This study is onoing. The following are being completed: 1. A cricket chitin feeding experiment using laying chickens. This will be designed similar to the previous study and egg laying potential will be determined. 2. A field study using chickens on pasture. Individual chickens will be used to determine the extent of insect consumption on pasture and the potential impacts upon performance.
Publications
- Indriolo, A. I. 2007. Apparent digestibility of chitin in birds and potential use as a marker for digestion. George H. Cook Student Scholars Project. Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.
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Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06
Outputs
Chitin is poly-N-acetylglucosamine and is one of the most abundant natural polymers second only to cellulose. It is commonly found in exoskeletons of arthropods, fungal cell walls or crustaceans, but its applications have been limited due to its poor solubility, reactivity, and processability. Chitin is structurally similar to cellulose, which is also β (1-4) linked, and is readily digestible in the rumen, but differs in that chitin contains an acetyl amide group at the C2 position, where cellulose contains a hydroxyl group. Chitin is commonly found in one of three crystalline forms. α-chitin, found in shrimp or crab shells contain molecules arranged in an anti-parallel fashion. β-chitin, found in mollusks and brachiopods, contains molecules arranged in a parallel fashion, and is considered the most reactive out of the three forms due to weak intermolecular interactions. γ-chitin is the form in which molecules are arranged in both an antiparallel
and parallel configuration. Insect chitin has been shown to contain all three forms: α, β and γ. Due to its cellulose-like rigid structure, chitin has the potential to be broken down by mechanisms similar to the digestion of cellulose. The disappearance of cricket chitin in ruminants was demonstrated in an in-situ study done in the spring of 2005 using a fistulated cow at the Rutgers University Dairy facility (Figure 1). In this preliminary study we found chitin breakdown from both crickets and to a lesser degree from a commercial source of purified β-chitin. Chitin is often measured by feed fiber analysis techniques such as Crude Fiber, Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) or Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF). In this project chitin was measured by ADF and NDF. In the study, the chitin found in the exoskeleton of crickets disappeared over time, but less disappeared from a commercial synthetic source of chitin. Dry matter disappearance increased over the 48-hour digestion period
as did NDF P<.05).
Impacts
If chitin is broken down in the ruminant digestive tract then feeds containing chitin may be used as feedstuffs for ruminants. For example, shell fish and shell fish meals containing chitin have been used as ruminant feed sources. Insects are of interest because of their presence in feed grains and other feeds fed to livestock and other ruminants. Future research will focus on chitin containing products in both ruminant and non ruminant diets. There is also interest in the possibility that certain chitin fractions (ADIN) could serve as digestive markers.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05
Outputs
The objectives of this proposal are to analyze and determine the nutrient content and variability of available byproduct feeds, and to determine the feeding value of these byproducts using a small ruminant model. Small ruminants will be studied initially. Goat production in the northeast is increasing for a variety of purposes (meat, milk, and cheese production, better use of available forage resources, hobbyists, 4-H, growing ethnic markets, etc.) and require new plans for feeding and supplementing, especially when fed pasture. Small ruminants can also make an effective model for transferring research to cows. Distillers grains will be researched first because there is little distillers grains feeding research completed for small ruminants, especially goats. Further there is an increasing amount of distillers feed available and this amount will likely increase. In addition to studying distillers grains we will study other regionally available feed byproducts such as
okara from the production of soymilk. Objectives: 1. Determine the nutrient quality, consistency, and variability of certain byproduct feeds. 2. Using a ruminally fistulated heifer, determine the rumen degradability of nutrients (organic matter, crude protein, fiber) from selected feeds. 3. Determine nutrient digestibility and performance of byproducts fed to small ruminants. This will include determinations of feeding value and economics. 4. After previous work is complete, begin studies of small ruminant supplementation on pasture. 5. Complete nutrient digestion and feeding studies with growing dairy heifers. The following project has been completed: Chitin is a poly-N-acetylglucosamine and it is one of the most abundant natural polymers, second only to cellulose. It is commonly found in exoskeletons of arthropods, fungal cell walls or nematode eggshells, but its applications have been limited due to its poor solubility, reactivity, and processability. Chitin is structurally similar
to cellulose, which is also b (1-4) linked, and is readily digestible in the rumen, but differs in that chitin contains an acetyl amide group at the C2 position, where cellulose contains a hydroxyl group. A preliminary experiment achieved a statistically significant difference in the before and after dry matter weights of chitin incubated (in situ) in rumen fluid (p<0.05). Chitin level was determined by the acid detergent fiber (ADF) technique. Levels of DM, CP, and ADF were significantly reduced during incubation when the chitin source was crickets. The reduction was much less when the chitin source was a semi-purified source of chitin from crabs. A further experiment is planned to determine if chitin as measured by ADF-CP might serve as an effective marker. The crab shell source utilized was very indigestible. A second experiment is being planned to determine if okara, a byproduct from the processing of soybeans to produce soymilk, can be used as a protein source for ruminants. This
project will be initiated by determining rumen degradability in situ.
Impacts
The impact of this project will be to increase the sustainability of New Jersey farmers by making use of available byproduct feedstuffs. These will provide other sources of feed for sheep, goat, and cattle producers. This should be of particular importance in the summer months when pasture feed availability declines. New Jersey farmers need alternatives to make use of the available forage resources within the state. This project will assist New Jersey farmers by enhancing sustainability of livestock farms and developing and delivering practical and effective solutions to production needs of small ruminant, beef, and dairy heifer producers. The research recently completed related to chitin breakdown in the rumen may help to better understand the digestion of chitin-containing products (crab-meal, insects, etc.) in ruminants.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04
Outputs
The use of a non-traditional feed source may potentially be healthier and more economically efficient than present feedstuffs in the industry. Chitin, a natural polymer was studied using the nylon bag technique, and rumen fluid from a fistulated cow from the Rutgers University bovine facility. A statistically significant difference in the pre and post incubation dry matter weights was observed (P Value= 0.00038). This statistical significance in this small incubation calls for the further investigation of chitin digestibility by the bovine microbial organisms. Future studies are planned using more treatments and experimental units. We will compare the time in situ digestibility of chitin-containing insects such as crickets, red-flour beetles or similar pests of grain storage, and a shellfish product such as crab or shrimp meal. Chitin is structurally similar to cellulose, which is also beta 1-4 linked, but differs in that chitin contains an acetyl amide group at the
C6 position where cellulose has a hydroxyl. We will analyze for chitin as Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) and Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) during rumen in situ digestion. Chitin has been analyzed in feed residues by other researchers as either Crude Fiber or Acid Detergent Fiber. The treatments we compare will be products that may be consumed by ruminants such as shellfish meals or insects from insect-contaminated grain.
Impacts
This research presents the potential effectiveness of feeding food wastes to livestock. Properly processed food wastes can result in acceptable animal gains and performance. Food wastes are often abundantly available. New processing techniques make the inclusion of food waste in livestock diets more accessible to commercial livestock producers. This study compared the microbial destruction of chitin-containing insects. Further research will be performed with containing chitin-containing insects, shellfish, and purified chitin. We will study the digestibility of chitin under various conditions. This will allow for a more accurate, determination of the potential use of chitin-containing products. This may provide new feeds for ruminant consumption and help dispose of chitin biomass.
Publications
- Jones, J., J. E. Wohlt, and M. L. Westendorf. 2004. Case Study: Comparison of Swine Diets Containing a Food Waste Product made with Wheat Middlings and Corn or a Corn/Soybean Diet. Prof. Anim. Sci. 20:422-428.
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Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03
Outputs
Several experiments were conducted with swine on the use of food waste as a swine feed. Preliminary data was presented in last years report. This years report includes a summary and the report of an additional digestibility study. Recycled food waste (fed either wet or dry) can provide an acceptable and nutritious feed for swine. Although pigs will readily consume wet food waste (FW), the high moisture content contributes to spoilage and feeding management problems. Thus, the use of a dry, processed food waste product was compared to a traditional corn/soy diet using growing swine in two performance trials and one digestibility trial. The food waste diet contained approximately 30-35% processed food waste. Diets were described In trial one, 24 gilts (76.4 kg) were fed in a six-week trial. Intake, gain, feed efficiency, and carcass characteristics were compared. Feed intake and gain averaged 3.4 and 3.6 kg of DM/d and .87 and .85 kg/d for gilts fed traditional and food
waste diets, respectively. There were no significant differences in these or any other parameters measured (P>.05). In trial two, 12 barrows (84.3 kg) were fed in a six-week trial. Intake, gain, feed efficiency, and carcass characteristics were compared. Feed intake and gain averaged 3.1 and 3.3 kg of DM/d and .62 and .71 kg/d for barrows fed traditional and food waste diets, respectively. There were no significant differences in these or any other parameters measured (P>.05). Four growing gilts (68.2 kg) were used to study digestibility in a switchback design. There were no differences (P>.05) for DM, CP, ADF, or NDF digestibility when feed intake averaged 1.9 kg of DM/d for gilts food waste or a corn/soy diet, respectively. The use of up to 30% processed food waste may be suitable in commercial swine diets.
Impacts
This research presents the potential effectiveness of feeding food waste to swine. Properly processed food waste can result in acceptable animal gains and performance. These food wastes are abundantly available. New processing techniques make the inclusion of food waste in swine diets more accessible to commercial livestock producers. Pigs fed a processed food waste product performed as well as pigs fed a more traditional diet. Not only may the use of processed food waste provide an acceptable dietary alternative for swine, it will provide a solid waste disposal alternative.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02
Outputs
Recycled food waste (FW) may provide a nutritious, alternate feed for swine. However, the high water content of FW makes it difficult to manage, suggesting that a dry, processed product may be needed. Pigs will readily consume a wet FW, but less research with a dry, processed product has been conducted. This study was undertaken to determine if pigs consuming a dry, food waste-based diet would gain as fast as pigs fed a traditional corn and soybean-meal diet. Diet ingredients for the two treatments were as follows: Food waste diet - 60% food waste (dried and ground), 9.95% soybean meal, 27.30% corn, 1.0% dicalcium phosphate, 1.0% limestone, 0.25% salt, 0.25% trace mineral premix, and 0.25% lysine; the corn and soybean meal diet - 25% wheat middlings, 13.8% soybean meal, 56.95% corn, 1.50% tallow, 1.0% dicalcium phosphate, 1.0% limestone, 0.25% salt, 0.25% trace mineral premix, and 0.25% lysine. Nutrient content for the two diets averaged: food waste diet - 1495 kcals
ME/pound of diet, 15.6% CP, 5.86% ADF, 0.82% lysine, 0.72% phosphorous, and 0.74% calcium; the corn and soybean meal diet - 1498 kcals ME/pound of diet, 15.3% CP, 5.01% ADF, 0.82% lysine, 0.67% phosphorous, and 0.67% calcium. The performance and growth portion of this study consisted of 36 growing and finishing pigs (12 pens of 3 pigs/pen), both barrows and gilts were used and balanced across treatments. Average starting weigh was 161 pounds and the average finishing weight was 258 pounds. Daily feed intake (FI), average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion (F/G), and carcass traits were determined. Average daily FI was 7.33 and 7.49 pounds, ADG was 1.67 and 1.79 pounds, and F/G was 4.49 and 4.54 pounds of feed per pound of gain for control (corn soybean meal) and food waste diets, respectively. Wheat middlings were added to the control diet to help equalize fiber and energy values between the two diets. Data indicate that food waste, when properly processed, can be included in swine
diets. A follow up digestibility study is planned.
Impacts
This research will present new opportunities for the recycling of food wastes which may otherwise propose disposal problems. The use of such products may also decrease the use of feed grains and other products that compete for human consumption.
Publications
- Brewing Byproducts: Their use as Animal Feeds. In: Alternative Feeds for Beef Cattle. G. Rogers and M. Poore, ed. The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice. W. B. Saunders. Philadelphia, PA. July, 2002 Publication. Page 233-252.
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Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01
Outputs
Food waste's high nutrient content makes it a potential animal feed. Most analyses reveal food waste to have high protein and fat content, both in excess of 20 per cent. Any animal feeding problems relate primarily to animal health concerns, moisture content, and nutrient variability. A bulk of the research completed with food waste has used wet waste for animal feed; however, recent projects have used various processed (extruded, dehydrated, pelleted, ensiled, etc.) products in animal feeding experiments. The ability to further process and de-water food waste would allow preservation, storage, and easier use commercially. This project has continued to examine the use of processed food wastes as animal feeds. Currently research is being completed examining a dry product produced by mixing wet wastes with wheat middlings and corn and drying them. These have been fed and are being fed to swine. Both growth and nutrient digestibility are studied.
Impacts
Work is in progress comparing the growth performance of swine fed food waste and swine fed a more traditional diet. In the first experiment swine fed food waste as a component performed acceptably when fed diets that were isonitrogenous and isocaloric with a traditional diet. The carcass performance was acceptable as well. Currently underway is a repeat of the previous experiment where growth and carcass merit were compared. Future studies are being performed on the digestibility of the diet.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/99 to 12/31/99
Outputs
Since productive ruminants require sources of expensive rumen escape or undegradable intake protein (UIP) in their diets, this research project was performed to determine if a less expensive product, a dry, processed food waste, could serve as an UIP source. The in situ degradability of soybean meal (SBM), pelleted food waste plus wheat middlings (FWW) and pelleted food waste plus corn (FWC) was compared. Both food waste (FW) samples were acquired from the Nutrafeed Corp. (Clermont, FL), and contained approximately 35% food waste and 65% wheat middlings or corn. Samples were placed in dacron bags (Ankon Tech.) having a pore size of 50 +/- 15 microns, heat-sealed and pre-washed. Bags were placed in the rumen of a cannulated Holstein heifer and incubated for 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24 and 48 hours, with 4 replicates per treatment and time. Residues were analyzed for DM, CP and ADF disappearance with results reported as percent disappearance (mean +/- SEM). Data were analyzed
by a two-way ANOVA, with time and treatment as main effects. DM, CP and ADF disappearance for all main effect comparisons were significantly different at P < .05. DM disappearance at 12 and 24 hours for SBM were 76.3 +/- .3 and 85.9 +/- 9.0%, for FWW 52.4 +/- 2.8 and 61.5 +/- 1.6%, and for FWC 63.9 +/- 3.9 and 74.6 +/- .9%. ADF disappearance at 12 and 24 hours for SBM were 54.1 +/- 4.8 and 79.9 +/- 14.5%, for FWW 27.4 +/- 1.1 and 33.7 +/- .6%, and for FWC 37.8 +/- 1.9 and 40.4 +/- .8%. CP disappearance at 12 and 24 hours for SBM were 78.4 +/- 1.0 and 81.6 +/- 8.4%, for FWW 62.1 +/- 5.3 and 72.8 +/- 5.2%, and for FWC 47.5 +/- 8.4 and 62.1 +/- 3.7%. Percent DM and ADF disappearance were greatest for SBM. Between the FW treatments percent DM disappearance was greater for FWC than FWW, possibly due to the higher fiber content of wheat middlings. This can also be explained by the FWW having a lower percent ADF disappearance than FWC. These differences in ADF disappearance between the two
FW diets may be due to different sources of fiber present. Percent CP disappearance was greatest for SBM, meaning that the two FW diets contained a greater percentage of UIP than did the SBM. Between the two FW diets, FWW has less UIP than FWC.
Impacts
These data suggest that the protein within food waste has both rumen degradable and undegradable components and may provide an economical source of undegradable protein in the ruminant diet. The disposal of food wastes is costly as it creates problems at landfills and disposal sites as well as being an economic burden for those who produce food wastes. This project studied the use of processed food wastes as animal feed and found that the product used in this study made an acceptable ruminant protein source. This has benefits not just for animal feeding, but for waste disposal as well.
Publications
- Lechner, J. J., B. A. Altizio, and M. L. Westendorf. 1999. In situ degradability of processed kitchen wastes. J. Anim. Sci. 77(Suppl. 1):254-255.
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Progress 01/01/98 to 12/31/98
Outputs
Recycled food waste (FW) may provide a nutritious, alternate feed for livestock. Pigs find wet FW highly palatable, but whether a dry product would also be accepted is unknown. Preference and digestibility of a pelleted FW product were determined in two feeding experiments. Twenty growing barrows were adapted to either a corn/soybean (CS) or FW diet for 14-d. During this adaptation phase, control pigs ate more than the food waste group, and the CS pigs grew faster than the FW. During the following 8-d, all pigs were offered both diets for 1h (1300 to 1400) to determine preference. From 1600 to 1100 of the following day, pigs received their usual diet. During the 1h choice period all pigs preferred the corn/soy diet over the food waste with the FW pigs consuming significantly more corn/soy than the CS pigs (CS - corn/soy: 426, food waste: 135 g; FW - corn/soy: 855, food waste: 103 g, SEM = 16 g; p < 0.001). During the non-choice time, control pigs consumed
significantly more than did the FW pigs. During the entire 8-d preference period both groups of pigs grew at the same rates. Digestibility was tested using six barrows in a 13-d adaptation period and 5-d collection period. Dry matter and ADF digestibilities were significantly higher in the CS pigs. These data suggest that when given a choice pigs prefer a standard corn/soybean diet to the dry, pelleted FW product used in this study. However, when the FW pigs were offered a CS supplement for only 1h/d they grew at rates similar to the CS pigs, suggesting that FW supplemented with some CS would be an adequate diet for growing pigs.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Westendorf, M. L., Z. C. Dong, and P. A. Schoknecht. 1998. Recycled cafeteria waste as a feed source for swine: nutrient content, digestibility, growth and meat quality. J. Anim. Sci. 76:2976-2983.
- Altizio, B. A., P. A. Schoknecht, and M. L. Westendorf. 1998. Growing swine prefer a corn/soybean diet over dry, processed food waste. J. Anim. Sci. 76(Suppl.1):185.
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Progress 01/01/97 to 12/31/97
Outputs
This experiment involved on-farm sample collection of food waste and encompassed a period of several years. Samples were collected approximately bi-monthly from five different farms. Some of the more common forms of food waste fed on the survey farms are as follows: bakery waste, Italian bread, corn meal, bread, vegetable waste, cull beans, potatoes, fish waste, and plate waste collected from institutions, casinos, and resturants. Results from all five farms indicated that food waste often has a very adequate nutritional profile. Protein was usually in excess of 20%, fiber content was low, and most minerals were borderline, if not adequate. Fat measured by ether extract was, on average, over 25 per cent in the samples collected. Standard deviations were quite large in many of the samples and coefficients of variation were near 100 per cent for some nutrients. Crude protein and dry matter had the least variability but were still inconsistent. Most food waste is fed to
growing or finishing pigs. For the major minerals studied, three farms were adequate for growing and finishing pigs, one farm was boderline and another farm low for calcium and phosphorous, respectively. All food waste provided excess iron, although the levels are below those considered to be of risk to growing or finishing swine. Results from this work have helped to develop a profile of the food waste which is currently fed to swine in the state of New Jersey.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Westendorf ML et al. 1996. Nutritional Quality of Recycled Food Byproducts. In: Westendorf, Zirkle and Horvath ed. Proc. 2nd Food Waste Recycling Symp. NJ Dept. Agric. Rutgers Coop Ext., and USDA
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Progress 01/01/96 to 12/30/96
Outputs
Maximizing the use of available byproduct feeds and forage resources while minimizing losses as waste are essential for any livestock operation. Prior to this year, research focused mostly on reducing the burden of wasted nutrients into the environment when ruminants are fed. Swine, however, perform adequately when fed food wastes as feed. One series of studies which were completed showed that on a dry matter basis, food waste contained a higher level of CO (21.36%), ADF (14.12%), EE (27.15%), and a lower level of ash (3.20%) and NFE (34.17% compared with a grain diet. Nutrient digestibility of food waste was also higher than that of a grain diet for most nutrients except ADF. Rates of nitrogen retention were not different between a food waste group and the grain-diet group (55.96% vs 55.22% P>0.05). Food waste fed pigs gained significantly less than pigs fed a grain diet (0.82 vs 0.46 kg/pig/day in growing phase; 0.99 v 0.62 kg/pig/day in the finishing phase). Food
waste diets supplemented with grain gained significantly faster (P<,05) than pigs feed food waste alone. Research will continue about the use of non-traditional feeds for animals and the impact upon our environment.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
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Progress 01/01/95 to 12/30/95
Outputs
Environmental regulations are increasing the need which livestock farmers have to minimize waste excretion of nutrients. Previous research conducted at Rutgers University (01/01/94-12/31/94) indicated that varying the rumen degradability of protein in the diets of sheep could decrease the amount of nitrogen excretion in the waste. Currently, we are conducting whole-farm nutrient budgets on two dairy farms located in New Jersey. This involves measuring all inputs onto each farm as feed, seed, fertilizer, etc., and all outputs as milk, meat, crop sales, feed cycled back into the dairy herd, and manure waste. Particularly, we are interested in the interaction of manure waste and soil and plant nutrient requirements. In general, dairy farmers appear to spread dairy waste on limited areas in close proximity to the milking facility. This can cause problems if it greatly overwhelms the ability of the soil to use the nutrients in the waste. It also appears that when done
properly, manure waste provides nutrients which are very beneficial to plant growth. This project is ongoing and samples will continue to be taken. At the close of taking samples and analysis, results will be summarized and a nutrient input/output budget completed for these two farms.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Westendorf, ML and R Gordon 1995. Effect of increasing dietary protein degradability on diets marginal in protein. J. Anim. Sci. 73(Suppl. 1):272.
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Progress 01/01/94 to 12/30/94
Outputs
Current nutrition guidelines for ruminant animals include requirements for degradable intake protein (DIP) and undergradable intake protein (UIP). Feeding proteins with a greater level of UIP (fishmeal, meat and bone meal, etc.) along with DIP sources may optimize protein availability and minimize the need to overfeed protein. In this project three experiments have been concluded comparing nitrogen metabolism, diet digestibility, and gain. In experiment 1, young growing lambs fed a diet marginal in crude protein gained fater (.15kg/d vs .12kg/d) and converted feed more efficiently (6.0kg feed/kg gain) when receiving part of the dietary crude protein as fishmeal (a source high in UIP). Experiment 2 compared digestibility and nitrogen retention when growing lambs were fed low protein diets (10%) CP containining either soybean meal or fish meal as part of the crude protein. Nitrogen retention was greater in lambs receiving fish meal (+5.3 g/d vs -7.0 g/d) than those
receiving soybean meal (P<.05). Blood urea nitrogen levels were lower (15.6 mg/dl vs 23.9 mg/dl) on the low protein diets. Greater urinary nitrogen excretion in the soybean meal diets may also have indicated greater ruminal nitrogen recycling in the fish meal diet. Experiment 3 compared nitrogen retention and digestibility with the presence of an ionophor in the feed. This experiment showed no improvement in either nitrogen retention or digestibility when an ionophor was present in the feed.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- NO PUBLICATIONS REPORTED THIS PERIOD.
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