EMERGING CONTAMINANTS: FATE DURING WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND WATER RECLAMATION PROCESSES

• Sponsoring Institution: State Agricultural Experiment Station
• Project Status: COMPLETE
• Funding Source: STATE
• Reporting Frequency: Annual
• Accession No.: 0151310
• Project Start Date: Jul 1, 2009
• Project End Date: Sep 30, 2012
• Program Code: [(N/A)]- (N/A)

Recipient Organization
UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
888 N EUCLID AVE
TUCSON,AZ 85719-4824

Performing Department
Natural Resources & the Environment

Non Technical Summary
There is a growing need for water reuse in Arizona and the semiarid southwestern United States. On the other hand, caution regarding acceptable uses and use-dependent treatment requirements preceding water reuse is warranted, in part due to discoveries regarding the presence of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) as well as other "emerging contaminants" (ECs) in domestic wastewater effluent. Among the EDCs measured in treated wastewater, estrogen, estrogen metabolites, and anthropogenic estrogen mimics have received the most attention. There has also been speculation regarding the effects of chronic human exposure to estrogenic compounds, such as elevated incidence of breast and prostate cancers and decline in sperm quality. There is a critical need to examine the fate of estrogenic compounds as well as other ECs during wastewater treatment, biosolids processing and disposal, and the efficacy of effluent polishing techniques as methods for limiting estrogenic activity in reclaimed water. Wastewater treatment facilities receive a wide range of discharges including domestic, industrial, medical, dairy, pharmaceutical etc. but conventional biological and physical-chemical treatment processes were never designed to deal with the complex and persistent trace contaminants that we are now able to detect. There is also growing awareness regarding the presence wastewater-derived organic contaminants in treated biosolids. The chemicals of greatest concern are anthropogenic chemicals and steroids, including a wide array of synthetic and naturally occurring compounds such as prescription and non-prescription drugs, pharmaceuticals, flame retardants, antimicrobials, steroids, estrogens, detergents, insect repellents, antibiotics and some naturally occurring phytoestrogens, to name but a few. Some of these ECs are identified as known or suspected endocrine disrupting compounds, which are chemicals or steroids that have the ability to alter the normal functioning of the endocrine system; that is the system responsible for the regulation of the development, growth, reproduction and behavior of an organism. Among the many ECs that have been observed in domestic wastewater, there are a number of compounds that can disrupt normal endocrine activity. Although the fate of these compounds during conventional wastewater treatment is somewhat uncertain, the hydrophobic character of known estrogenic compounds in wastewater suggests that they will associate with sludges derived from wastewater treatment. The steroid hormones and alkylphenols, in particular, could reach high concentrations in biosolids. Nevertheless, there is little direct evidence regarding the fates of EDCs during wastewater treatment and, for chemicals that separate with sludges, survival during solids handling and treatment processes. There is a critical need for these data when biosolids derived from sludge treatment are beneficially used as soil amendments. Owing to the widespread (and growing) practice of land disposal of biosolids, this need is felt throughout the country, although the most acute need may be in the semiarid Southwest, where soils are typically organic-poor.

Animal Health Component

(N/A)

Research Effort Categories

Basic

(N/A)

Applied

(N/A)

Developmental

(N/A)

Classification

Knowledge Area (KA)	Subject of Investigation (SOI)	Field of Science (FOS)	Percent
133	0110	2000	25%
133	0110	2050	25%
133	0210	2000	25%
133	0210	2050	25%

Knowledge Area
133 - Pollution Prevention and Mitigation;

Subject Of Investigation
0110 - Soil; 0210 - Water resources;

Field Of Science
2050 - Hydrology; 2000 - Chemistry;

Keywords

endocrine disrupting compound

emerging contaminant

wastewater

biosolids

Goals / Objectives
The first objective of this research is to more closely examine sludge digestion processes to resolve discrepancies in previous observations between the attenuation of the natural female hormone estradiol (E2) and the attenuation of total estrogenic activity through sludge digestion operations in WWTPs in Arizona. Our specific aim is to develop and apply analytical procedures to measure occurrence and concentration of nonylphenol isomers (estrogen mimics) in sludges before and after anaerobic digestion processes. A longer-term objective will be to understand the specific biochemical transformations that occur during anaerobic sludge digestion and their impact on total estrogenic activity. The second objective of this research will be to assess the use of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for the destruction of EDCs in effluent. Oxidation processes such as UV irradiation, ozonation and hydrogen peroxide treatment are widely used in water and wastewater treatment for microbial disinfection and organic contaminant removal. These processes, which generate and employ hydroxyl radicals for destruction of organic compounds, are also widely used in water and contaminated groundwater clean-up and are recently finding increased use in wastewater treatment as improved effluent polishing is demanded. The third objective of this research will be to determine the long-term stability of EDCs and PBDEs after land application of biosolids. Our research group has previously analyzed surface soils obtained from the Marana Agricultural Center, where biosolids were applied annually to test plots over a 20-yr period. We detected the presence of nonylphenol and PBDEs in samples obtained from the first 12 inches of soil. This project will expand on previous work

Project Methods
Task 1. Evaluation of EDC transformation in sludge digestion processes. Baseline information concerning the identity, concentration, characteristics, temporal/seasonal variations and potency of estrogenic compounds that are believed to preferentially partition onto biosolids during common wastewater treatment processes to condition, thicken, stabilize, and process sludge from wastewater treatment will be determined through the use of chemical analysis (nonylphenol) and bioassays (total estrogenic activity). Task 2. Comparative assessment of advanced oxidation methods for destruction of EDCs and reduction of estrogenic activity in biosolids and secondary effluents. Preliminary literature reviews specifically focusing on estrogenic compound degradation by oxidation processes have yielded scant and often contradictory previous work. For instance, Westerhoff et al. (2005) reported greater than 70% removal of estradiol and ethinyl estradiol with water treatment chlorination, whereas work at the Roger Road WWTP showed no change in total estrogenic activity through chlorination/ dechlorination of secondary effluent. A broader and more in depth review of research on the use of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) on EDCs and compounds with similar chemical structures (e.g., aromatic rings) will be performed to provide insight into the most promising physicochemical processes to target for further investigation. Task 3. Evaluation of fate and persistence of EDCs in biosolids used for land application. Measurements performed by our group on surficial soils obtained from a local land application site (Marana Agricultural Center) receiving municipal biosolids showed significant levels of estrogenic activity, nonylphenol, and PBDEs in the first foot of soil (Zhang, 2006). The test plots at this field site received normal (1x) and high (3x) loading rates of biosolids over the course of twenty annual applications of municipal biosolids in a long-term research project led by Dr. Ian Pepper. In our preliminary analyses we were unable to determine overall transport and fate of EDCs in the soil profile. A set of sixty archived soil samples from these test plots was recently obtained. The soil samples were collected at depths from one to five feet below land surface. By analyzing these soil samples for APs, PBDEs, and total estrogenic activity, we will establish the stability of various EDCs in the soil over the time scale of the irrigation cycles, as well as over the time scale of the operation of the land application practice.

Progress 07/01/09 to 09/30/12

Outputs
Target Audience: Target audiences for project activities included wastewater treatment plant operators and other professionals engaged in the wastewater treatment industry, academics, professionals in regulatory agencies, and civil engineering consultants. These audiences were reached through a combination of peer-reviewed literature articles and oral presentations given at professional conferences, as described in the Products section of this report. Changes/Problems: The proposed second objective of this project (role of advanced oxidation processes in destruction of trace organic contaminants) was not pursued due to loss of access of functional laboratory equipment necessary to perform the advanced oxidation treatments. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided? The project provided thesis research opportunities/training for two PhD students and 2 Master of Science students. In addition, four undergraduate students received education/training by participating in project research activities. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest? Project results have been disseminated through a combination of peer-reviewed publications, research reports, and conference presentations/proceedings, as described in the Products section of this report. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals? Nothing Reported

Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals? This first objective of this project was to evaluate the occurrence and fate of estrogenic compounds, and the estrogenicity of biosolids derived from wastewater treatment. Sludge and biosolids samples were collected through the solids treatment train of four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) operating a range of solids processing, treatment and disposal options that are typical to facilities across the United States. Targeted solids processing methods included thickening via gravity, gravity belt, and dissolved air flotation; stabilization via lime addition, aerobic digestion and anaerobic digestion; chemical conditioning; dewatering via centrifuge; and other processes including composting and pelletization. Targeted disposal options included beneficial reuse or disposal including land application, dedicated land disposal and landfilling. Samples were collected from the study plants between two and five times over two years, allowing for a preliminary assessment of seasonal variation. In some cases, sampling density was not sufficient to assess seasonal variations, but for certain compounds interesting seasonal trends were observed. The solids samples were supplemented by liquid samples at key locations in the study plants during several sample collection events. Over the course of the study, 15 sample trips were conducted and a total of 90 samples were collected from the four study plants. For each sample collected, chemical analysis for steroid hormones and in vitro biological assay (bioassay) measurements were conducted to quantify estrogen receptor agonists and estrogenic activity. In addition to the estrogenic compounds, samples were analyzed for a suite of trace organic compounds (TOrCs), including anthropogenic wastewater indicators (AWIs) and pharmaceuticals, resulting in analysis for over 100 chemical compounds in each liquid or solid sample. Collection of these data substantially expanded the scope and value of the study, providing a more comprehensive evaluation of the effects of solids processing and treatment on TOrCs. Loads of TOrCs and estrogenic activity were calculated for each sample point based on flows and solids loadings data from the study plants. In this exercise, TOrC concentrations were multiplied by the solids loading (tons per day) to calculate the daily load of each compound in grams per day (g/day). The second objective of this project was to evaluate fate of endocrine disrupting compounds and PBDE (flame retardants) following application to of municipal biosolids to agricultural lands. Based on a mass balance analysis, after 20 years of biosolid application, PBDE concentrations in surface soils (upper two feet) from the Marana, Arizona research site were 14 to 37 times higher than expected based on a single biosolids application, suggesting that PBDEs persist in agricultural soils with degradation half-lives of decades or longer. Nonylphenol and estrogenic activity measurements from these same soil samples were at or near detection limits, indicating that these classes of contaminants are degraded following land application of biosolids and do not accumulate in soil over time.

Publications

• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: 4. Kahl, Alandra, Bob Arnold, Eduardo S�ez, Mario Rojas, David Quanrud, Jon Chorover, Leif Abrell, Alandra Kahl, Darryl Jones, Amanda Laughlin, Long Cheng, Ningxin Wang and Christopher Arnold. Invited Oral Presentation, Special Symposium in Honor of Martin Reinhard, The Evolution of Southwestern Water Challenges, San Diego, California, ACS National Meeting, March 25-29, 2012.
• Type: Other Status: Published Year Published: 2010 Citation: Furlong, E.T., Quanrud, D.M., and Stinson, B.M. 2010. Fate of estrogenic compounds during municipal sludge stabilization and dewatering. Water Environment Research Federation (ISBN-10: 1843393905). 176pp.
• Type: Journal Articles Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: Furlong, E.; Gray, J.; Quanrud, D.; Teske, S.; Werner, S.; Esposito, K., Marine, J. Ela, W., Zaugg, S., Phillips, P., Stinson, B. 2012. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, anthropogenic waste indicators, and total estrogenicity in liquid and solid samples from municipal sludge stabilization. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report: 2011-1132, 8p.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2012 Citation: 5. Dong, B., Saez, E., Quanrud, D., and Arnold, R. Fate of estrogenic/androgenic activity and estrogen/androgen mimics during sludge digestion. Bioassay Directed Chemical Analysis: Exploring the Unknown Unknowns, 243rd American Chemical Society National Meeting, San Diego, CA. March 25-29, 2012.
• Type: Conference Papers and Presentations Status: Published Year Published: 2011 Citation: 6. Pepper, I., Quanrud, D., Gerba, C., Newman, D., Saez, E. Fate of endocrine disruptors following Long-Term Application of Class B Biosolids and Risks to Public Health. 3rd International Conference on Occurrence, Fate, Effects, and Analysis of Emerging Contaminants in the Environment. Copenhagen, Denmark. August 8, 2011.

Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10

Outputs
OUTPUTS: During 2010, project results were disseminated at three professional meetings/workshops located in Tucson, Prescott, and Tempe, Arizona. Two University of Arizona graduate students, both in the Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, conducted dissertation research on the project: Bingfeng Dong (PhD) and Alandra Kahl (PhD). TARGET AUDIENCES: Audiences served by the project include participants at a fall workshop organized by the UA Water Sustainability Program (NSF Water Environment Technology Center). David Quanrud provided two lectures on project outcomes: 1) a brownbag seminar ("The ABCs of Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and other emerging contaminants") at the University of Arizona's School of Natural Resources and the Environment and 2) a public outreach talk ("Emerging Contaminants: Concentration and Fate in Wastewater and Groundwater") at a Forum focused on risks of recharge of treated wastewater to groundwater, organized by the Verde Watershed Association and Citizens Water Advisory Committee. PARTICIPANTS: Partner organizations included the USGS National Water Quality Laboratory, AECOM Consultants, and Northern Arizona University. Collaborators included Robert Arnold, Wendell Ela, Jon Chorover (University of Arizona); Beverley Stinson, Kathleen Esposito (AECOM); Edward Furlong, James, Gray, Dana Kolpin, Patrick Phillips(USGS); and Cathy Propper (Northern Arizona University). TARGET AUDIENCES: Audiences served by the project include participants at a fall 2010 workshop organized by the UA Water Sustainability Program (NSF Water Environment Technology Center). David Quanrud provided two lectures on project outcomes: 1) a brownbag seminar ("The ABCs of Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and other emerging contaminants") at the University of Arizona's School of Natural Resources and the Environment and 2) a public outreach talk ("Emerging Contaminants: Concentration and Fate in Wastewater and Groundwater") at a Forum focused on risks of recharge of treated wastewater to groundwater, organized by the Verde Watershed Association and Citizens Water Advisory Committee in Prescott, Arizona. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
A white paper was produced that included a review of recent technical literature on wastewater treatment processes to reduce risk from emerging trace organic contaminants. In summary, conventional wastewater treatment provides for partial but not complete removal of most endocrine disrupting compounds(EDCs) and other trace organics. Natural treatment systems (e.g. recharge basins, artificial wetlands) attenuate many, but not all, EDCs and can be useful as a component in multi-barrier engineered treatment systems. Trace organics removal during advanced wastewater treatment is a very active area of research. Membrane treatment (e.g. reverse osmosis), advanced oxidation processes, and activated carbon have all been shown to be effective in removing or reducing concentrations of EDCs and other trace organics from wastewater. Drawbacks of advanced treatment include capital and operational costs, with energy costs being an important consideration, particularly for membrane treatment. Manipulation of parameters such as increasing the solids retention time (sludge age) during conventional treatment may prove to be nearly as effective as advanced treatment processes for EDC removal and at less cost than advanced treatment. Future research should concentrate on optimizing conventional wastewater treatment processes for EDC removal. In addition, it will be important to couple testing of treatment technologies for EDC removal efficiency with whole animal biological assays to determine if the technology sufficiently eliminates the biological activity of the EDCs in the released wastewater effluent.

Publications

• Furlong, E.T.,Gray, J.L., Quanrud, D., Teske, S., Esposito, K., Marine, J., Ela, W.P., Stinson, B., Phillips, P.J., and Kolin, D.W. 2010. Fate of Estrogenic Compounds during Municipal Sludge Stabilization and Dewatering. Final Report to the Water Environment Research Foundation. 178pp.
• Quanrud, D.M. and Propper, K. 2010. Wastewater Effluent: Biological Effects of Exposure and Treatment Processes to Reduce Risk. White Paper commissioned by The Nature Conservancy. 56pp.

Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Project results were disseminated at 5 professional meetings and workshops in 2009, including conferences in Tucson, Denver, Washington D.C., Baltimore, and San Fransisco. Three graduate students working on the project gave oral presentations at national professional meetings. PARTICIPANTS: David Quanrud serves as principal investigator on the project. Project Collaborators include Eduardo Saez, Robert Arnold, Wendell Ela, and Jon Chorover from University of Arizona. Five University of Arizona graduate students conducted thesis/dissertation research on the project in 2009: Sondra Teske (PhD), Bingfeng Dong (PhD), Cary Leung (MS), Dave Newman (MS), and Alandra Kahl (MS). TARGET AUDIENCES: Audiences served by the project include participants at spring and fall workshops organized by the UA Water Sustainability Program (NSF Water Environment Technology Center) conducted in Tucson and Tempe. David Quanrud provided lectures on project outcomes to undergraduate students enrolled in a Pollution Science course at UA. PARTICIPANTS: Partner Organizations: USGS National Water Quality Laboratory, AECOM Consultants. Collaborators: Robert Arnold, Wendell Ela, Jon Chorover (University of Arizona); Beverley Stinson, Kathleen Esposito (AECOM); Edward Furlong, James, Gray, Dana Kolpin, Patrick Phillips (USGS). Training: 5 graduate students participated on the project. TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
Concentrations of estrogenic, androgenic, and other endocrine-active hormones, synthetic estrogenic compounds, pharmaceuticals and other trace organic compounds were determined in solids and liquids from four municipal wastewater treatment plants. These concentrations were then used to estimate instantaneous loads and % removals for unit processes in the four plants. Many trace organic compounds (TOrCs), particularly the steroid hormones, were removed efficiently by secondary treatment processes. Some concentrations were close to analytical detection limits in solid samples, adding uncertainty to the measurements and interpretation of data for solids unit processes. Within unit processes, particularly during secondary treatment, estrogens and synthetic endocrine disrupting compounds undergo phase transfer, transformation to intermediates of differing estrogenic potency, and removals that are unit process specific, with increases in some compounds, such as lower homologue alkylphenol ethoxylates and in some cases estrone. Concurrently, changes in constituent potency via transformation, results in an overall qualitative correspondence to the observed reduction in potency reflected in bioassay estrogenicity. Careful consideration of the exact chemical compositions of liquids and solids moving through treatment is critical to determining which unit processes are most effective at reduction of estrogenicity, and how unit processes may be modified or optimized for maximal reduction in total estrogenicity of solids.

Publications

• Quanrud, D., Fate of estrogenic compounds during municipal sludge stabilization and dewatering. Water Environment Research Foundation National Virtual Forum. December 8, 2009.
• Quanrud, D., Ela, W., Teske, S., and Newman, D. Water Environment Research Foundation WEB Seminar. April 29, 2009.
• Gray, J., Esposito, K., Furlong, E., Quanrud, D., Stinson, B., Kolpin, D., Phllips, P., Ela, W., Teske, S., Hais, A., Stewart, M. Fate of estrogenic compounds during municipal sludge stabilization. USEPA Workshop. Washington, D.C. June 17, 2009.
• Stinson , B., Esposito, K., Gray, J., Furlong, E., Quanrud, D., Ela, W., Teske, S. Kolpin, D., and Phillips, P. The estrogenicity of biosolids-a mass balance approach. Microconstituents/Industrial Water Quality Conference. Baltimore, Maryland. July 26-29, 2009.
• Leung, C., Teske, S., Quanrud, D., Ela, W., Arnold, R., and Saez, E. Fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in wastewater: from treatment to land application of biosolids. Micropol and Ecohazard 2009; 6th IWA/GRA Specialized Conference on Assessment and Control of Micropollutants/Hazardous Substances in Water. San Francisco, California, June 8-10, 2009.

Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Project results were disseminated at a total of 10 professional meetings and workshops in 2008, including conferences in Tucson, Phoenix, Tempe, Baton Rouge, Stevenson (WA), and Victoria (B.C.). Three graduate students working on the project gave oral presentations at national professional meetings. PARTICIPANTS: David Quanrud serves as principal investigator on the project. Project Collaborators include Eduardo Saez, Robert Arnold, Wendell Ela, and Jon Chorover from University of Arizona and Craig Cogger and Andy Bary from Washington State University's Puyallup Agricultural Field Station. Four University of Arizona graduate students conducted thesis/dissertation research on the project in 2008: Sondra Teske (PhD), Bingfeng Dong (PhD), Cary Leung (MS), and Dave Newman (MS). The Northwest Biosolids Management Association was a partner in 2008 and provided matching funds supporting project activities. TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audiences served by the project include participants at spring and fall workshops organized by the UA Water Sustainability Program (NSF Water Quality Center) conducted in Tucson and Tempe. Project findings were disseminated to wastewater treatment utility professionals at (1) annual meeting of the Northwest Biosolids Management Association in Stevenson, WA, September 2008 and (2) wastewater equipment manufacturers annual conference in Tucson, November 2008. David Quanrud provided lectures on project outcomes to undergraduate students enrolled in a Pollution Science course at UA and also performed outreach by giving talks to community groups in Safford and Tucson Arizona. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.

Impacts
1. Fate of PBDEs during Wastewater Treatment. Two wastewater treatment facilities were examined, each utilizing a different process (trickling filter or activated sludge) during secondary treatment. Samples of plant influent, effluent, and digested sludge were collected and analyzed for PBDE congeners. At the trickling filter facility, heavily brominated congeners were more successfully removed from the aqueous stream during secondary wastewater treatment. The greatest removal efficiency was for BDE-209. Congener mass ratios were similar in plant influent, effluent, undigested sludge and the commercial Penta product, suggesting that processes governing the physical-chemical breakdown of Penta-containing products and PBDE collection, transport and separation or transformation during wastewater treatment do not strongly differentiate among BDE-47, -99, -100, -153 and -154. Sludges accounted for 84% of the total PBDE efflux after secondary treatment at the trickling filter facility. However, the potential for biochemical transformation of PBDEs during anaerobic sludge digestion must be considered in order to compare PBDE masses entering the environment with effluent and biosolids. At the activated sludge facility, primary sludge, waste activated sludge and digested sludge were obtained every few days (n = 18) over a month-long period. Samples were dewatered and analyzed for extractable PBDEs in order to establish congener-dependent fates or degradability during mesophilic anaerobic digestion. The concentrations of total solids and sludge flows were used to produce mass balances on individual PBDE congeners. Cumulative flow rates of BDE-47, -99 and -209 indicated removals of 17 to 37% during anaerobic sludge digestion. At least a part of the apparent loss, however, was a consequence of a 12% difference in sludge flow measurements across plant digester units, a probable artifact, during the period of study. After adjusting for flow, missing PBDE mass across the digester was 15% of total PBDE mass. BDE-47, -99 and -209 accounted for 89-90% of the measured PBDE mass in raw and digested sludges, and BDE-209 alone represented 38% (raw sludge) and 36% (digested sludge) of the total PBDE mass. The contribution of waste activated sludge to PBDE loading in the digesters was always greater than that of primary sludge although differences decreased among the most heavily halogenated congeners. 2. Fate of PBDEs after land application. Substantial declines in soil PBDE concentrations occurred over the 18-month sampling campaign at Puyallup, WA. Recoveries of BDE-47 from soil represented 8.5% and 4% of total estimated BDE-47 that had been applied in biosolids to the soil over the field project lifetime. Similarly, recoveries of BDE-99 were 14% and 8.5% of total estimated BDE-99 that had been applied to the soil. The mechanism of PBDE loss is unknown but may be related to soil organic carbon content. Similar mass balance studies performed at the UA Marana Agricultural Center land application plots in Arizona showed that PBDE concentrations in soil were essentially conserved after 20 years of biosolid application.

Publications

• 1. Zhang, J., Tomanek, M., Dong, H., Arnold, R., Ela, W., Quanrud, D., Saez, E. 2008. Fate of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers, Nonylphenol and Estrogenic Activity during the Managed Infiltration of Wastewater Effluent. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 134(6):433-442.
• 2. Arnold,R., Teske,S., Tomanek,M, Engstrom,J., Leung,C., Zhang,J, Banihani,Q., Quanrud,D., Ela,W., and Saez,E. 2008. Fate of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers during Wastewater Treatment/Polishing and Sludge Stabilization/Disposal. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1140:394-411.
• 3. Quanrud, D. 2008. Recent findings on polybrominated diphenyl ethers in biosolids. Northwest Biosolids Management Association Annual Conference. Stevenson, Washington. September 9, 2008.
• 4. Quanrud, D. Zhang, J., Tomanek, M., Arnold, R., Ela, W., and Saez, A.E. 2008. Long-term fate of PBDEs after soil aquifer treatment. Brominated Flame Retardant 2008 Workshop. Victoria, B.C. June 3, 2008.

Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07

Outputs
OUTPUTS: Project results were disseminated at a total of 12 professional meetings and workshops in 2007, including conferences in Tucson, Phoenix, Tempe, Palm Springs, Tampa, Chelan (WA), and Beijing China. Three graduate students working on the project gave oral presentations at national professional meetings. PARTICIPANTS: David Quanrud serves as principal investigator on the project. Project Collaborators include Eduardo Saez, Robert Arnold, and Wendell Ela from University of Arizona and Craig Cogger and Andy Bary from Washington State University's Puyallup Agricultural Field Station. Four University of Arizona graduate students conducted thesis/dissertation research on the project in 2007: Peter Littlehat (Phd), Sondra Teske (Phd), Cary Leung (MS), and Matt Tomanek (MS). The Northwest Biosolids Management Association (NBMA) was a partner in 2007 and provided matching funds supporting project activities. Project findings were disseminated at the annual meeting of NBMA in Chelan, WA in September 2007. TARGET AUDIENCES: Target audiences served by the project include the several hundred Arizona professionals that attended workshops organized by the UA Water Sustainability Program (Emerging Contaminants Workshop, Phoenix, March 2007) and the UA Water Resources Research Center (2007 Annual conference, theme: water quality, Phoenix, June 2007) at which project results were conveyed. David Quanrud provided lectures on project outcomes to undergraduate students enrolled in a Pollution Science course at UA and also performed outreach by giving talks to community groups in Benson and Safford Arizona.

Impacts
A primary goal of the project in 2007 was to examine the relative risk associated with polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in biosolids used for land application. Specific objectives in this regard included development of PBDE extraction and measurement techniques, comparison of PBDE fate during various sludge digestion practices and after land application of biosolids, risk assessment of other possible routes of PBDE exposure (e.g. household dusts), and development of an in vitro bioassay to measure thyroid hormone disruption activity in environmental samples. Project activities during 2007 achieved findings in the following areas: 1) PBDE fate during wastewater treatment/sludge digestion; 2) mass balance analysis of PBDE fate during soil aquifer treatment; 3) PBDE fate after land application of biosolids: mass balance analysis; and 4) relative risk of airborne PBDEs in office and laboratory environments. 1. Fate of PBDEs during Wastewater Treatment/Sludge Digestion. PBDE congener distribution profiles were similar in anaerobically digested sludges from municipal wastewater treatment plants employing trickling filters and activated sludge processes. The dominant PBDE congeners were BDE-47, -99, and -209. Total PBDE concentrations in the digested sludges from the trickling filter and activated sludge wastewater treatment plants were 0.119 mg/L and 0.130 mg/L, respectively. 2. Mass Balance Analysis: Soil Aquifer Treatment. PBDEs were detected in basin sediments from the Sweetwater Recharge Facilities. A mass balance analysis of the main congeners BDE-47 and -99 showed 57% or more of total applied PBDE mass over recharge basin lifetime (10 to 15 years) was accounted for in the top 0.85m of basin sediment, suggesting PBDEs are largely conserved over time. Results indicate half-times for loss of PBDEs in basin soils are on the order of decades or longer. 3. Mass Balance Analysis: Land Application. After 20 years of biosolid application, PBDE concentrations in surface soils (upper two feet) from the University of Arizona Marana Agricultural Center site were 14 to 37 times higher than expected based on a single annual biosolids application, indicating that PBDEs accumulate in agricultural soils receiving biosolid applications. 4. Relative Risk: Indoor Air PBDE Exposure. A standard occupational sampler designed to mimic human inhalation uptake of particles was adapted for use to evaluate PBDE exposure in indoor air (e.g. university computer laboratory). Results will be compared to previously obtained air measurements to evaluate different environments for relative risk of PBDE exposure.

Publications

• Conroy, O., A.E. Saez, D. Quanrud, W.P. Ela and R.G. Arnold. 2007. Changes in estrogen/anti-estrogen activities in ponded secondary effluent. Sci. Total Environ. 382: 311-323.
• Leung, C., Tomanek, M., Quanrud, D., Arnold, R., and Ela, W. 2007. The Fate of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) in Biosolids Applied to Land. In: Proceedings, 6th International Conference on Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water. National Ground Water Association. Costa Mesa, CA October 22-23, 2007.
• Littlehat Jr., P., Arnold, R., Bahl, R., Quanrud, D., Morkin, E., and Adamson, C. 2007. Thyroid receptor-mediated transcriptional activity in environmentally relevant wastewater, In: Proceedings, World Environmental and Water Resources Conference. Environmental and Water Resources Institute, American Society of Civil Engineers. Tampa, FL. May 15-19, 2007.
• Littlehat, P., Arnold, R., Bahl, R., Quanrud, D., Morkin, E., and Adamson, C. 2007. Measurement of thyroid hormone activity in treated wastewater. In: Proceedings, 22nd Annual WateReuse Symposium. WateReuse Association. Tampa, Fl. September 9-12, 2007.
• Quanrud,D., Zhang,J., Tomanek,M., Arnold,R., Ela, W., and Saez, E. 2007. Fate of Selected Endocrine Disruptors during Soil Aquifer Treatment. In: Proceedings, 6th International Conference on Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water. National Ground Water Association. Costa Mesa, CA October 22-23, 2007.
• Tomanek, M., Engstrom, J., Arnold, R., and Quanrud, D. 2007. Fate of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in conventional wastewater treatment and effluent application to recharge basins. In: Proceedings, 2007 California Section Annual Conference. WateReuse Association. Palm Springs, CA. March 4-6, 2007.

Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06

Outputs
OBJECTIVES The objectives of this program are: 1. Measurements of estrogenic activity and nonylphenol to support mass balance analyses across wastewater treatment processes, including primary and secondary treatment and anaerobic sludge digestion; 2. Development of data on the presence and fate of PBDEs in biosolids and after land application. APPROACH: 1. Wastewater Treatment and Sludge Digestion Studies: During the first phase of the project, a monitoring program was established at a local wastewater treatment plant in Tucson. The fate of estrogenic activity and nonylphenol during solids treatment is being quantified by comparing extracts corresponding to raw sludge, anaerobically digested sludge, dewatered sludge, and the recycle supernatant stream. As part of a more comprehensive evaluation, additional data is being collected on the liquid wastewater treatment streams at the plant (including samples of the liquid stream such as raw wastewater, primary effluent and secondary effluent) to support a through-plant balance on estrogenic activity and nonylphenol. 2. Fate of PBDEs after Land Application of Biosolids: Soil samples obtained from the UofA Marana Agricultural Center and possibly other sites receiving biosolids amendments are being assessed for PBDE content. In addition, the persistence and transport of PBDEs in the soil after biosolid application is being evaluated, by keeping track of their distribution as a function of time over several months. This will allow establishment of PBDE loss rates due to microbial activity, washout rates, and long-term transformations. RESULTS: 1. Results from the analysis of influent, combined thickened sludge, and secondary effluent from the local wastewater treatment plant show that PBDEs partition into sludges but also remain in the treated effluent. The average concentration of total PBDEs in the combined thickened sludge was about 2 mg PBDEs/kg sludge. The average secondary effluent total PBDE concentration was 87 ng/L. Average aqueous-phase PBDE concentrations decreased during wastewater treatment. Possible mechanisms for through-plant decrease in PBDE concentrations include destruction, transformation, or partioning onto sludges. Adsorption, to sludges was studied by measuring concentrations in the combined thickened sludge. Based on a mass balance analysis, liquid-phase PBDE congener concentrations decreased by about 40 to 90 percent during secondary treatment, except for BDE-47, which increased by about 60%. PBDEs removed from the liquid phase were transferred to the solid phase (sludge) during treatment. The increase in BDE-47 may possibly be due to breakdown of more brominated congeners during biological treatment. 2. Archived biosolids from Puyallup were analyzed for PBDEs; concentrations of PBDEs were 2,286 and 4,321 mg/kg for biosolids from 1993 and 2002, respectively. PBDEs in the 1993 biosolids were composed of 60% BDE-47 and -99, and 20% BDE-209. PBDEs in 2002 biosolids were composed of 61% BDE-47 and -99, and 24% BDE-209.

Impacts
Water conservation and reuse as well as issued related to water will continue to grow in importance as populations expand and living standards improve. Research and education will play a major role in more efficient and effective use of our water resources.

Publications

• No publications reported this period

Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05

Outputs
OBJECTIVES The objectives of this program are: *Evaluation of constructed wetlands technology for impacts on plants. *Development of data on the removal of nitrogen, organics, endocrine disrupting compounds, and pathogens by constructed wetlands. *Development of data on alternative treatment systems for agricultural wastewater. *Comparison of treatment performance by constructed wetlands versus soil-aquifer treatment (rapid infiltration) for polishing of wastewater effluent. APPROACH: (1) Sampling and analysis of (a) wastewater treated by wetlands to evaluate efficacy of treatment and (b) plants to evaluate impact on vegetation from wastewater and potable water; the goal being to evaluate the potential of wetlands in treating municipal wastewater while providing a viable habitat for indigenous flora and fauna; (2) Quantification of urban water use from data generated at occupied residential/demonstration homes; and (3) Operational evaluation of treatment systems to (a) evaluate potential for graywater reuse and (b) to assist in establishment of state regulatory guidelines for reuse and in a comprehensive review paper on graywater. ACTIVITIES: The study of water quality changes during treatment in research demonstration-scale constructed wetlands continues. Water quality data include pH, biochemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen (nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, ammonium-nitrogen and organic nitrogen), total suspended solids, turbidity, chloride, sulfate, and electrical conductivity. In addition, the fate of endocrine disrupting compounds was examined at the Constructed Ecosystems Research Facility (CERF), a pilot-scale subsurface wetland consisting of parallel raceways. Comparisons were evaluated between a vegetated raceway receiving potable water, a non-vegetated raceway receiving secondary effluent and a vegetated raceway receiving secondary effluent. Samples collected monthly were filtered, concentrated to 1000x using C18 resin, and analyzed using the yeast estrogen screen (YES) bioassay. RESULTS: The removal of estrogenic activity in the non-vegetated raceway was found to be equal to or better than in the vegetated raceway at CERF. It was also observed that wetland vegetation can be a source of measurable, but low estrogenic activity. No distinct difference in removal efficiencies was detected during warm versus cold seasons. Subsurface flow wetland treatment was shown to significantly reduce the amount of estrogenic activity present in secondary effluent. Reductions were not associated with temperature or seasonal variation effects. Wetland vegetation provided no treatment benefit and instead contributed measurable estrogenic activity to wetland product water. Monitoring will be continued to provide a more comprehensive picture.

Impacts
Water conservation and reuse as well as issued related to water will continue to grow in importance as populations expand and living standards improve. Research and education will play a major role in more efficient and effective use of our water resources.

Publications

• Conroy, O., Quanrud, D.M., Ela, W.P., Wicke, D., Lansey, K.E., and Arnold, R.G. 2005. Fate of Wastewater Effluent hER-Agonists and -Antagonists during Soil Aquifer Treatment. Environmental Science and Technology. 39(7):2287-2293.
• Dorie, B., Littlehat, P., Arnold, R., Ela, W., and Quanrud, D. 2005. Seasonal Variation of Estrogenicity During Subsurface Wetland Treatment. In: Proceedings 12th Biennial Symposium on the Groundwater Recharge. Tucson, AZ. June 8-11, 2005.
• Quanrud, D., Drewes, J., Milczarek, M., Conroy, O., Ela, W., Lansey, K., and Arnold, R. 2005. Soil Aquifer Treatment: A sustainable Process for Organics Removal? In: Proceedings, 12th Biennial Symposium on the Groundwater Recharge. Tucson, AZ. June 8-11, 2005.

Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04

Outputs
OBJECTIVES The objectives of this program are: *Evaluation of constructed wetlands technology for impacts on plants. *Development of data on the removal of nitrogen, organics, endocrine disrupting compounds, and pathogens by constructed wetlands. *Development of data on alternative treatment systems for agricultural wastewater. *Comparison of treatment performance by constructed wetlands versus soil-aquifer treatment (rapid infiltration) for polishing of wastewater effluent. APPROACH: (1) Sampling and analysis of (a) wastewater treated by wetlands to evaluate efficacy of treatment and (b) plants to evaluate impact on vegetation from wastewater and potable water; the goal being to evaluate the potential of wetlands in treating municipal wastewater while providing a viable habitat for indigenous flora and fauna; (2) Quantification of urban water use from data generated at occupied residential/demonstration homes; and (3) Operational evaluation of treatment systems to (a) evaluate potential for graywater reuse and (b) to assist in establishment of state regulatory guidelines for reuse and in a comprehensive review paper on graywater. ACTIVITIES: The study of water quality changes during treatment in research-, demonstration-, and operational-scale constructed wetlands continues. Water quality data include pH, biochemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen (nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, ammonium-nitrogen and organic nitrogen), dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, turbidity, chloride, sulfate, and electrical conductivity. In addition, the fate of endocrine disrupting compounds at selected constructed wetlands receiving either wastewater or stormwater runoff is being evaluated. Hydrophobic organics in water samples are extracted using C18 resin and tested for estrogenic activity using an in vitro yeast-based reporter gene assay. Samples from each plant species in natural and constructed wetlands have been collected and analyzed for selected parameters. Analysis of either water extracts or acid digests by ICP emission spectrophotometry or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry have been used. There is a need to expand the palette of plants used in constructed wetlands. Selected plants have been purchased or field-harvested and grown. They are being evaluated for growth and their ability to withstand inundation for prolonged periods in high strength wastewater.

Impacts
Water conservation will continue to grow in importance as populations expand and living standards improve. Research and education will play a major role in more efficient and effective use of our water resources. Constructed wetlands provide an attractive method for polishing wastewater effluent while providing ancillary benefits such as creation of wildlife habitat.

Publications

• Quanrud, D.M., Quast, K., Conroy, O., Karpiscak, M.M., Lansey, K.E., Ela, W., and Arnold, R.G. 2004. Measurement of Estrogenic Activity and Volume Contribution of Treated Wastewater in Water from Wells along the Santa Cruz River, Arizona. Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation. 24(2):86-93.
• Quanrud, D.M., Karpiscak, M.M., Lansey, K.E., and Arnold, R.G. 2004. Transformation of Effluent Organic Matter during Subsurface Wetland Treatment in the Sonoran Desert. Chemosphere. 54(6):777-788.
• Quanrud, D., Zhang, J., Teske, S., Dong, H., Orosz-Coghlan, P., Littlehat, P., Conroy, O., Arnold, R., Ela, W., and Lansey, K. 2004. The fate of nonylphenol and total estrogenic activity during wastewater treatment and sludge digestion: a mass balance analysis. In: Proceedings, 4th International Conference on Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water. Minneapolis, MN. October 13-15, 2004.
• Conroy, O., Quanrud, D.M., Arnold, R.G., Ela, W.P., and Lansey, K.E. 2004. Anti-Estrogenic Activity in Wastewater Effluent: Fate during Soil Aquifer Treatment. In: Proceedings, 4th International Conference on Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water. Minneapolis, MN. October 13-15, 2004.

Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03

Outputs
OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this program are: *Evaluate constructed wetlands technology for impacts on plants. *Develop data on the removal of nitrogen species, dissolved organics, endocrine disrupting compounds, and pathogens by constructed wetlands. *Develop data on alternative treatment systems for agricultural wastewater. *Compare treatment performances by constructed wetlands versus rapid infiltration systems (soil-aquifer treatment) for polishing of wastewater effluent. APPROACH: (1) Sampling and analysis of (a) wastewater treated by wetlands to evaluate efficacy of treatment and (b) plants to evaluate impact on vegetation from wastewater and potable water; the goal being to evaluate the potential of wetlands in treating municipal wastewater while providing a viable habitat for indigenous flora and fauna; (2) Comparison of treatment performances by constructed wetlands versus rapid infiltration systems (soil-aquifer treatment); and (3) Evaluate an expanded list of plants for use in constructed wetlands. ACTIVITIES: The study of water quality changes during treatment in research-, demonstration-, and operational-scale constructed wetlands continues. Water quality data include pH, biochemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen (nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, ammonium-nitrogen and organic nitrogen), dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, turbidity, chloride, sulfate, and electrical conductivity. In addition, the fate of endocrine disrupting compounds at selected constructed wetlands (both free-water-surface and subsurface flow systems) receiving either wastewater or stormwater runoff was evaluated. Hydrophobic organics in water samples are separated using C18 solid-phase extraction and tested for estrogenic activity using several in vitro bioassays (receptor binding, reporter gene, and cell proliferation). Performance of wetlands for removal of endocrine disrupting compounds has been compared to an operational rapid infiltration (surface spreading basins) facility that receives secondary effluent. Samples from plant species in natural and constructed wetlands were collected and analyzed for selected parameters. Analysis of either water extracts or acid digests by ICP emission spectrophotometry or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry have been used. Selected plants have been purchased or field-harvested and grown to evaluate their ability to withstand inundation for prolonged periods in high strength wastewater. Research on residential water use has concluded. A journal article is in preparation for the Desert House project.

Impacts
Water conservation will continue to grow in importance as populations expand and living standards improve. Research and education will play a major role in more efficient and effective use of our water resources. Constructed wetlands provide an attractive method for polishing wastewater effluent while providing ancillary benefits such as creation of wildlife habitat.

Publications

• Quanrud, D.M., Conroy, O., Turney, K.D., Lansey, K.E., and Arnold, R.G. 2002. Fate of Estrogenic Activity in Reclaimed Water During Soil Aquifer Treatment. In: Proceedings, 2002 Water Sources AWWA conference, Las Vegas, NV. January 27-30, 2002.
• Zhang, J., Dong, H., Arnold, R.G., Ela, W.P., Quanrud, D.M., Lansey, K.E. 2003. Long-term fate of estrogenic compounds removed from wastewater effluent during soil-aquifer treatment. In: Proceedings, Arizona Hydrological Society 16th Annual Symposium. Mesa, AZ. September 17-20, 2003.
• Bjolseth, I.M., Quanrud, D.M., Karpiscak, M.M., Ela, W.P., Lansey, K.E., and Arnold, R.G. 2003. Fate of Estrogenic Activity during Wetland Treatment of Wastewater Effluent and Stormwater Runoff. In: Proceedings, 11th Biannual Symposium on the Groundwater Recharge, Phoenix, AZ, June 5-7, 2003.
• Quanrud, D.M., Quast, K., Conroy, O., Karpiscak, M., Gerba, C., Lansey, K. Ela, W. and Arnold, R. 2003. Estrogenic Activity and Volume Fraction of Wastewater Origin in Monitoring Wells Along the Santa Cruz River, Arizona. In: Proceedings, 11th Biannual Symposium on the Groundwater Recharge, Phoenix, AZ, June 5-7, 2003.
• Zhang, J. Quanrud, D., Ela, W., Lansey, K., Arnold, R. 2003. Determination of Estrogenic Compounds Associated with Solids. In: Proceedings, 11th Biannual Symposium on the Groundwater Recharge, Phoenix, AZ, June 5-7, 2003.
• Quanrud, D.M., Zhang, J., Dong, H., Ela, W., Lansey, K.E., and Arnold, R.G. 2003. Development and Application of Extraction Procedures for Estrogens in Biosolids and Soils. 3rd International Conference on Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals in Water, Minneapolis, MN. March 19-21, 2003.
• Quanrud, D.M., Seidel, G., Lansey, K.E., Gerba, C.P., and Arnold, R.G. 2002. Comparison of In Vitro Methods for Measurement of Estrogenic Effects in Treated Wastewater. In: Proceedings, AWWA Endocrine Disruptors and The Water Industry Symposium. Cincinnati, OH. April 18-20, 2002.

Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02

Outputs
OBJECTIVES The objectives of this program are: *Development of data on alternative treatment systems for agricultural wastewater. *Evaluation of constructed wetlands technology for impacts on plants. *Data development on removal of nitrogen, organics, pathogens and endocrine disruptors by constructed wetlands. *Development of data on graywater. APPROACH: (1) Sampling and analysis of (a) wastewater treated by wetlands to evaluate efficacy of treatment and (b) plants to evaluate impact on vegetation from wastewater and potable water; the goal being to evaluate the potential of wetlands in treating municipal wastewater while providing a viable habitat for indigenous flora and fauna; (2) Quantification of urban water use from data generated at occupied residential/demonstration homes; and (3) Operational evaluation of treatment systems to (a) evaluate potential for water reuse and (b) to assist in establishment of state regulatory guidelines for reuse. ACTIVITIES: The study of water quality of water produced by research, demonstration and operational constructed wetlands continues. Water quality data include pH, BOD, total nitrogen (nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, ammonium-nitrogen and organic nitrogen), dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, turbidity, chloride, sulfate, and electrical conductivity. In addition, the fate of organics in water samples at selected locations is being evaluated. These samples were fractionated and used to isolate dissolved organics using resin columns. Isolates have been characterized using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy and elemental analysis techniques. Increasingly, research activities have focused on endocrine disruptors in various waters and studies related to evaluating techniques for their detection and removal. The wetland system used to treat dairy wastewater was previously modified. This facility has been designed to be both a demonstration of appropriate wastewater treatment at dairies in arid areas as well as a research project. The final year of chemical, physical and biological parameters monitoring in the modified system was completed. Plant samples from each species in natural and constructed wetlands have been collected and analyzed for selected parameters. Analysis of either water extracts or acid digests by ICP emission spectrophotometry or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry have been used. There is a need to expand the pallette of plants used in constructed wetlands. Selected plants have been purchased or field-harvested and grown. They are being evaluated for growth and their ability to withstand inundation for prolonged periods in high strength wastewater. Selected species were moved to larger pilot-scale wetlands for continued evaluation. We continue to conduct research in residential water use. A comprehensive final report on the research at Casa del Agua has been issued and a final paper published. We have prepared a comprehensive final report on Desert House and will be preparing a journal article for publication.

Impacts
IMPACT Water conservation and wastewater reuse will continue to grow in importance as populations expand and living standards improve. Research and education will play a major role in more efficient and effective use of our water resources.

Publications

• Gortares, P., L. Castro, J.E. Naranjo, F. Manshadi, C.P. Gerba, M.M. Karpiscak and R. J. Freitas. 2002. Microbiological Water Quality in Irrigation Water and Its Impact on Fresh Vegetables. Submitted to conference of American Society of Microbiology, May 2002, Salt Lake City, UT.
• Quanrud, D.M., J. Hafer, M.M. Karpiscak, J. Zhang, K.E. Lansey and R.G. Arnold. 2002. Fate of Organics during Soil Aquifer Treatment: Sustainability of Removals in the Field. Water Research. In press.
• PUBLICATIONS Quanrud, D.M., M.M. Karpiscak, K.E. Lansey and R.G. Arnold. 2002. Transformation of Effluent Organic Matter during Subsurface Wetland Treatment in the Sonoran Desert. Chemosphere. Accepted.
• Falabi, J.A., C.P. Gerba and M.M. Karpiscak. 2002. Giardia and Cryptosporidium Removal from Wastewater by a Duckweed (Lemna gibba L.) Covered Pond. Letters in Applied Microbiology 34:384-387.

Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01

Outputs
OBJECTIVES The objectives of this program are: *Development of data on alternative treatment systems for agricultural wastewater. *Evaluation of constructed wetlands technology for impacts on plants. *Development of data on the removal of nitrogen, organics and pathogens by constructed wetlands. *Quantification of residential water use and development of data on graywater. APPROACH: (1) Sampling and analysis of (a) wastewater treated by wetlands to evalute efficacy of treatment and (b) plants to evaluate impact on vegetation from wastewater and potable water; the goal being to evaluate the potential of wetlands in treating municipal wastewater while providing a viable habitat for indigenous flora and fauna; (2) Quantification of urban water use from data generated at occupied residential/demonstration homes; and (3) Operational evaluation of treatment systems to (a) evaluate potential for greywater reuse; (b) to assist in establishment of state regulatory guidelines for reuse and in a comprehensive review paper on greywater; and (c) metering point-of-use hot water system water use. ACTIVITIES: The study of water quality of water produced by research, demonstration and operational constructed wetlands continues. Water quality data include pH, BOD, total nitrogen (nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, ammonium-nitrogen and organic nitrogen), dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, turbidity, chloride, sulfate, and electrical conductivity. In addition, the fate of organics in water samples at selected locations is being evaluated. These samples then are fractionated and used to isolate dissolved organics using resin columns. Isolates have been characterized using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy and elemental analysis techniques. The wetland system used to treat dairy wastewater has been modified. This facility has been designed to be both a demonstration of appropriate wastewater treatment at dairies in arid areas as well as a research project. Chemical, physical and biological parameters will be monitored in the newly modified system. Plant samples from each species in natural and constructed wetlands have been collected and analyzed for selected parameters. Analysis of either water extracts or acid digests by ICP emission spectrophotometry or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry have been used. There is a need to expand the pallette of plants used in constructed wetlands. Selected plants have been purchased or field-harvested and grown. They are being evaluated for growth and their ability to withstand inundation for prolonged periods in high strength wastewater. We continue to conduct research in residential water use. A comprehensive final report on the research at Casa del Agua has been issued and a final paper published.

Impacts
IMPACT Water conservation will continue to grow in importance as populations expand and living standards improve. Research and education will play a major role in more efficient and effective use of our water resources.

Publications

• Karpiscak, M.M., G.W. France, K.J. DeCook, R.G. Brittain, K.E. Foster and S.B. Hopf. 2001. Casa del Agua: Water Conservation Demonstration House-1986 Through 1998. Journal of American Water Resources Association 37(5):1237-1248.
• Casanova, L.M., C.P. Gerba and M.M. Karpiscak. 2001. Chemical and Microbial Characterization of Household Graywater. J. Environ. Sci. Health A36(4):395-401.
• Karpiscak, M.M., L.R. Whiteaker, J.F. Artiola and K.E. Foster. 2001. Nutrient and heavy metal uptake and storage in constructed wetland systems in Arizona. Journal of Water Science and Technology 44(11-12):455-462.
• Fox, P. S. Houston, P. Westerhoff, J.E. Drewes, M. Nellor, Wm. Hanko, R. Baird, M Rincon, R. Arnold, K. Lansey. R. Bassett, C. Gerba, M.M. Karpiscak, D. Quanrud, G. Amy and M. Reinhard. 2001. Investigation on Soil-Aquifer Treatment for Sustainable Water Reuse. National Center for Sustainable Water Supply, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. 55 pp.
• Quanrud, D.M., M.M. Karpiscak, K.E. Lansey and R.G. Arnold. 2001. Behavior of organic carbon during subsurface wetland treatment in the Sonoran Desert. Journal of Water Science and Technology 44(11-12):267-272.
• Shamir, E., T.L. Thompson, M.M. Karpiscak, R.J. Freitas and J.Zauderer. 2001. Nitrogen Accumulation in a Constructed Wetland for Dairy Wastewater Treatment. Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 37(2):315-325.

Progress 01/01/00 to 12/31/00

Outputs
OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this program are: *Development of data on alternative treatment systems for agricultural wastewater. *Evaluation of constructed wetlands technology for impacts on plants. *Development of data on the removal of nitrogen, organics and pathogens by constructed wetlands. *Quantification of residential water use and development of data on graywater. APPROACH: (1) Sampling and analysis of (a) wastewater treated by wetlands to evalute efficacy of treatment and (b) plants to evaluate impact on vegetation from wastewater and potable water; the goal being to evaluate the potential of wetlands in treating municipal wastewater while providing a viable habitat for indigenous flora and fauna; (2) Quantification of urban water use from data generated at occupied residential/demonstration homes; and (3) Operational evaluation of treatment systems to (a) evaluate potential for greywater reuse; (b) to assist in establishment of state regulatory guidelines for reuse and in a comprehensive review paper on greywater; and (c) metering point-of-use hot water system water use. ACTIVITIES: The study of water quality of water produced by research, demonstration and operational constructed wetlands continues. Water quality data include pH, BOD, total nitrogen (nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, ammonium-nitrogen and organic nitrogen), dissolved oxygen, total suspended solids, turbidity, chloride, sulfate, and electrical conductivity. In addition, the fate of organics in water samples at selected locations is being evaluated. These samples then are fractionated and used to isolate dissolved organics using resin columns. Isolates have been characterized using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy and elemental analysis techniques. The wetland system used to treat dairy wastewater has been modified. This facility has been designed to be both a demonstration of appropriate wastewater treatment at dairies in arid areas as well as a research project. Chemical, physical and biological parameters will be monitored in the newly modified system. Plant samples from each species in natural and constructed wetlands have been collected and analyzed for selected parameters. Analysis of either water extracts or acid digests by ICP emission spectrophotometry or graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry have been used. There is a need to expand the pallette of plants used in constructed wetlands. Selected plants have been purchased or field-harvested and grown. They are being evaluated for growth and their ability to withstand inundation for prolonged periods in high strength wastewater. We continue to conduct research in residential water use. A comprehensive report on the research at Casa del Agua and a new paper has been submitted for publication. Eight articles were prepared and submitted for publication. One is published, one has been accepted and six are pending.

Impacts
Water conservation has received the most attention in arid areas where water shortages are most imminent. Desert areas with finite water supplies face water supply problems that do not affect other areas, but shortly will. Our efforts focus on arid areas. The knowledge that results from these efforts will have broad applications. People must understand the importance of conservation and reuse. This requires sound information, education and demonstration projects.

Publications

• Karpiscak, M.M. and G.J. Gottfried. 2000. Tree production in desert regions using effluent and water harvesting. In: Land Stewardship in the 21st Century: The Contributions of Watershed Management, USDA Forest Service Conference Proceedings, RMRS-P-13.2000, March 13-16, 2000, pp. 261-264.

Progress 01/01/99 to 12/31/99

Outputs
The use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment, residential water conservation, and water harvesting are being studied. On-going research on nutrient, pathogen and organic removal is being carried out at several research/demonstration facilities. The Constructed Ecosystems Research Facility (CERF) in Tucson is a pilot-scale facility where data are being acquired on treating municipal effluent with surface, subsurface, and aquatic wetland ponds. The Sweetwater Wetland and Recharge Facility adjacent to the CERF came on line in 1997 and field research was initiated. Suction samples are taken below the wetland cells and recharge basins. Surface water samples also are collected from various points in the wetland cells at Sweetwater. In Glendale, an agricultural/industrial wastewater system is being modified for improved wastewater treatment at a dairy that milks about 2,000 cows twice daily and produces about 50,000 gallons of wastewater daily. Wastewater is being treated and reused at the dairy for flushing lanes and a composting operation. A water harvesting system growing 6 species of trees (Eucalyptus-Eucalyptus camaldulensis; Cottonwood-Populus fremontii; Black willow-Salix nigra; Mondell pine-Pinus eldarica; Sycamore-Platanus wrightii; Velvet ash-Fraxinus velutina) is gathering data on tree growth and nutrient uptake and concentration. In Tucson, Casa del Agua was operated until June 1999 and a comprehensive research report will be prepared on nearly 13 years of research at the facility. During 1999, 5 publications were submitted and 3 were published.

Impacts
This project has provided data on various types of wastewater treatment alternatives and has demonstrated the environmental benefits and beneficial reuse of wastewater at a commercial dairy. Other aspects of the project have informed the public about the possibilities of water conservation in their own homes without major changes in lifestyle.

Publications

• Karpiscak, M.M., R.J. Freitas, C.P. Gerba, L.R. Sanchez, and E. Shamir. 1999. Management of dairy waste in the Sonoran Desert using constructed wetland technology. Water Science and Technology 40(3):57-65.
• Gerba, C.P., J.A. Thurston, J.A. Falabi, P.M. Watt, and M.M. Karpiscak. 1999. Optimization of artificial wetland design for removal of indicator microorganisms and pathogenic protozoa. Water Science and Technology 40(4-5):363-368.
• Karpiscak, M.M., R.D. Wass, R.J. Freitas and S.B. Hopf. Constructed wetlands in southern Arizona. Arid Lands Newsletter No. 45, Spring/Summer 1999. 12 pp. http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln45/wetlands.html.
• Karpiscak, M.M., A.M. Stewart, R.D. Wass and F.A. Amalfi. 2000. Constructed wetland technology and mosquito populations in Arizona. Submitted to Journal of Arid Environments.
• Shamir, E., T.L. Thompson, M.M. Karpiscak, R.J. Freitas and J. Zauderer. 1999. Nitrogen accumulation in a constructed wetland for dairy wastewater treatment. Submitted to the Journal of the American Water Resources Association.

Progress 01/01/98 to 12/31/98

Outputs
The use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment, residential water conservation, and water harvesting are being studied. On-going research on nutrient, pathogen and organic removal is being carried out at several research/demonstration facilities. The Constructed Ecosystems Research Facility (CERF) in Tucson is a pilot-scale facility where data are being acquired on treating municipal effluent with surface, subsurface, and aquatic wetland ponds. The Sweetwater Wetland and Recharge Facility adjacent to the CERF came on line in 1997 and field research was initiated. During 1998, suction samples were taken below the wetland cells and recharge basins. Surface water samples also were collected from various points in the wetland cells at Sweetwater. In Glendale, an agricultural/industrial wastewater system is being monitored at a dairy that milks about 2,000 cows twice daily and produces about 50,000 gallons of wastewater. Wastewater was treated and reused at the dairy. A water harvesting system growing 6 species of trees (Eucalyptus-Eucalyptus camaldulensis; Cottonwood-Populus fremontii; Black willow-Salix nigra; Mondell pine-Pinus eldarica; Sycamore-Platanus wrightii; Velvet ash-Fraxinus velutina) is gathering data on tree growth and nutrient uptake and concentration. In Tucson, Casa del Agua continues to be operated and graywater research recently was renewed with emphasis on pathogen studies. During 1998, 7 publications were submitted and 2 were published.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• Karpiscak, M.M., T.M. Babcock, G.W. France, J. Zauderer, S.B. Hopf, and K.E. Foster. 1998. Evaporative Cooler Water Use Within the City of Phoenix. J. of Amer. Water Works Assoc. 90:121-130.
• Karpiscak, M.M. and G.J. Gottfried. 1998. Tree Production in the Sonoran Desert Using Effluent and Water Harvesting. Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science 42nd Annual Meeting, Glendale, Arizona. April 18, 1998. Hydrol. and Water Resources in Arizona and the Southwest, Vol 28:37-45.
• Karpiscak, M.M., R.J. Freitas, C.P. Gerba, L.R. Sanchez, and E. Shamir. Management of Dairy Waste in the Sonoran Desert Using Constructed Wetland Technology. 1998. Submitted to 6th International Conference of the International Association on Water Quality, Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control, September 27-October 2, 1998, Sao Pedro, Brazil. Abstract pp. 16-17.

Progress 01/01/97 to 12/31/97

Outputs
The use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment, residential water conservation, evaporative cooler water use, and water harvesting are being studied. On-going research on nutrient, pathogen and organic removal is being carried out at several research/demonstration facilities. The Constructed Ecosystems Research Facility (CERF) in Tucson is a pilot-scale facility where data are being acquired on treating municipal effluent with surface, subsurface, and aquatic wetland ponds. The new Sweetwater Wetland and Recharge Facility adjacent to the CERF came on line in 1997 and monitoring was initiated. During 1997, suction samplers were installed below the wetland cells and recharge basins. In the wetland cells, the samplers were placed from 0.3 m to 3 m below the surface. In the recharge basins, they were installed to a depth of 30 m. In Glendale, an agricultural/industrial wastewater system is being monitored at a dairy that milks about 2,000 cows twice daily and produces about 50,000 gallons of wastewater. Beginning in 1997, wastewater was treated and reused at the dairy. A water harvesting system growing six species of trees (Eucalyptus-Eucalyptus camaldulensis; Cottonwood-Populus fremontii; Black willow-Salix nigra; Mondell pine-Pinus eldarica; Sycamore-Platanus wrightii; Velvet ash-Fraxinus velutina) is gathering data on tree growth and nutrient uptake and concentration. In Tucson, Casa del Agua continues to be operated and graywater research recently was renewed with emphasis on pathogen studies.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• Karpiscak, M.M., T.M. Babcock, G.W. France, J. Zauderer, S.B. Hopf, and K.E. Foster. Evaporative Cooler Water Use Within the City of Phoenix. J. of Amer. Water Works Assoc. (In press-due April 1998)

Progress 01/01/96 to 12/30/96

Outputs
The use of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment, residential water conservation, evaporative cooler water use, and water harvesting are being studied. On-going research on nutrient and pathogen removal is being carried out at several research/demonstration facilities. The Constructed Ecosystems Research Facility is a pilot-scale facility in Tucson where data are being acquired on treating municipal effluent with surface, subsurface, and aquatic wetland ponds. The pilot-scale facility can process up to 200,000 gallons of wastewater per day in 6 large raceways. Pathogen removal (Giardia, cryptosporidium) from a duckweed pond and multi-species ecosystem has been documented. In Phoenix, a large-scale agricultural/industrial wastewater system has been completed for a dairy that milks about 2000 cows twice daily and produces about 50,000 gallons of wastewater. Data are now being acquired on nitrogen and pathogen removal. Evaporative cooler water use in Phoenix was found to average about 14,000 gallons per unit during a 2 year study that was completed in 1996. This study followed cooling season water use in 25-50 homes. A new water harvesting system growing 6 species of trees (Eucalyptus-Eucalyptus camaldulensis; Cottonwood-Populus fremontii; Black willow-Salix nigra; Mondell pine-Pinus eldarica; Sycamore-Platanus wrightii; Velvet ash-Fraxinus velutina) was completed in late 1996. Data will be acquired during the next few years on tree growth and nutrient concentration.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• Karpiscak, MM, RJ Scholze, & GW France. 1996. A Study of Residential Toilet Water Use at a Military Reservation. Proc. of Conserv96, Responsible Water Stewardship. Florida, Jan. 1996. PP 919-923.
• Freitas, RJ & MM Karpiscak. 1996. Dairy Wastewater Treatment with Constructed Wetlands for Re-Use & Recharge. First Annual Report to Arizona Dept. of Water Resources. Grant No. AUG94PH19-00.
• Freitas, RJ, MM Karpiscak, E. Shamir. 1996. Constructed Wetlands Annotated Bibl.
• Karpiscak, MM, CP Gerba, PM Watt, KE Foster, & JA Falabi. 1996. Multi-species Plant Systems for Wastewater Quality Improvement & Habitat Enhancement. Water Sci. & Tech. 33:231-236.
• Karpiscak, MM, TM Babcock, GW France, J Zauderer, SB Hopf, & KE Foster. Evaporative Cooler Water Use Within the City of Phoenix. Submitted to J. of Amer. Water Works Assoc. Aug. 1996.
• Thurston, JA, JA Falabi, CP Gerba, KE Foster, & MM Karpiscak. 1996. Fate of Indicator Organisms, Giardia & Crytosporidium, in Two Constructed Wetlands. Proc. of 5th Int'l Conf. on Wetlands Sys.for Water Pollution Control, Vienna,Sept.1996.
• Falabi, JA, CP Gerba, & MM Karpiscak. 1996. Fate of Selected Pathogens in a Duckweed (Lemna gibba L.) Covered Pond. 1996 Water Reuse Conference Proc. San Diego, Feb. 1996. PP 1071-1080.

Progress 01/01/95 to 12/30/95

Outputs
Residential water conservation, use of evaporative cooler water, rainfall harvesting & graywater systems are being studied. During 1995, two single-family residences were operated & monitored in Ariz. as research/demonstration facilities. In Tucson, Casa del Aqua has been an on-going program for several years. In Phoenix, the Desert House exhibit at the Desert Botanical Garden was opened in 1994. The Desert House Project includes computer monitoring of water and energy use along with interactive public access to data in an adjoining information center. The Constructed Ecosystems Res. Fac. is being used to study the impacts of wastewater on living plants that are being used to treat the wastewater and the fate of pathogens in both potable and wastewater. The pilot scale facility can process up to 200,000 gallons of wastewater per day in 6 large raceways. Data acquired during 1995 indicate that during all climatic conditions in Tucson, AZ, both secondary effluent and raw wastewater can be upgraded to tertiary standards in these constructed wetland systems. Biochemical Oxygen Demand & Total Suspended Solids have been reduced to 10 mg/l or less. Another small-scale operational facility was operated at the Arizona Sonora Desert Museum. A small scale system is being planned to treat septic tank effluent. A large scale agricultural/industrial wastewater system has been designed to treat the wastewater at a 2,000 cow dairy located west of Phoenix.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• Karpiscak, M.M., C.P. Gerba, P.M. Watt, K.E. Foster, and J.A. Falabi. In Press. Multi-Species Plant Systems For Wastewater Quality Improvement and Habitat Enhancement. Water Science and Technology.
• Karpiscak, M.M., G.W. France, J. Zauderer, S.B. Hopf, T.M. Babcock, and H. Johnson. 1995. Evaporative Cooler Water Use Within The City of Phoenix. Final Report for the Arizona Department of Water Resources.
• Gerba, C.P., T.M. Straub, J.B. Rose, M.M. Karpiscak, K.E. Foster, and R.G. Brittain. 1995. Water Quality Study of Graywater Treatment Systems. Water Resources Bulletin 31(1):109-116.
• Karpiscak, M.M., R.J. Scholze, and G.W. France. In Press. A Study of Residential Toilet Water Use At A Military Reservation. Proceedings of conserv 96 Conference, January 4-8, Orlando, Florida.
• Foster, K.E., and M.M. Karpiscak. 1995. Residential Water Conservation: An Appropriate Technology For The Rapidly Developing Arabian Peninsula. Proceedings The Sultanate of Oman International Conference on Water Resources Management in Arid.

Progress 01/01/94 to 12/30/94

Outputs
RESIDENTIAL WATER CONSERVATION, USE OF EVAPORATIVE COOLER WATER, RAINFALL HARVESTING, AND GRAYWATER SYSTEMS ARE BEING STUDIED. TWO SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES ARE CURRENTLY BEING OPERATED AND MONITORED IN AZ AS RESEARCH/DEMONSTRATION FACILITIES. IN TUCOSN, CASA DEL AQUA HAS BEEN AN ON GOING PROGRAM FOR SEVERAL YEARS. IN PHOENIX, THE DESERT HOUSE EXHIBIT AT THE DESERT BOTANICAL GARDEN WAS RECENTLY OCCUPITED BY A FAMILY. THE DESERT HOUSE PROJECT INCLUDES COMPUTER MONITORING OF WATER AS WELL AS ENERGY USE ALONG WITH INTERACTIVE PUBLIC ACCESS TO DATA IN ADJOINING INFORMATION CENTER. A CONSTUCTED ECOSYSTEMS RESEARCH FACILITY IS BEING USED TO STUDY THE IMPACTS OF WASTEWATER ON LIVING PLANTS THAT ARE BEING USED TO TREAT THE WASTEWATER. THE PILOT SCALE FACILITY CAN PROCESS UP TO 200,000 GAL. OF WASTEWATER PER DAY. DATA ACQUIRED DURING 1994 INDICATE THAT DURING ALL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN TUCSON,AZ SECONDARY EFFLUENT CAN BE UPGRADED TO TERTIARY STANDARD IN THESE MULTISPECIES CONSTRUCTED WETLAND SYSTEMS. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) HAS BEEN REDUCT TO 10 MG/L OR LESS. ANOTHER SMALL SCALE OPERATIONAL FACILITY IS ALSO BEING EVALUATED. OTHER SYTEMS ARE BEING PLANNED TO TREAT SMALL SCALED SEPTIC SYSTEMS AS WELL AS LARGE SCALE AGICULLTURAL/INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER STREAMS. THE VOLUME OF WATER USED IN DIFFERENCT EVAPORATIVE COOLER SYSTEMS IN BEING METERED AT RESIDENCES WITH THE CITY OF PHOENIX. THESE FIELD STUDIES WERE CONDUCTED DURING THE 1993 & 1994 COOLING SEASONS AND INVOLVED SOME 50 HOMES.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Progress 01/01/93 to 12/30/93

Outputs
Residential water conservation, rainfall harvesting, and greywater systems are being evaluated. A single-family residence is currently being operated as a research facility in Tucson, AZ. A second-generation research/demonstration facility (Desert House) has been built in Phoenix, AZ, at the Desert Botanical Garden. The project includes computer monitoring of water and energy use and interactive public access to data in an adjoining information center. A pilot scale constructed ecosystems research facility treating up to 200,000 gallons per day of wastewater is being studies. Data acquired during the 1992-93 year indicate that during all climatic conditions in Tucson, AZ, secondary effluent can be upgraded to teritary standards. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) has been reduced to 10 mg/l or less. Another small-scale operational constructed ecosystem facility is also being studied. The volume of water used in different evaporative cooler systems is being evaluated.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Progress 01/01/92 to 12/30/92

Outputs
Residential water conservation, rainfall harvesting, and greywater reuse systemsare being evaluated. A single-family residence is currently being operated as a research facility in Tucson, AZ. A second-generation research/demonstration facility (Desert House) is being built in Phoenix, AZ, at the Desert Botanical Garden. The project will include computer monitoring of water and energy use and interactive public access to data in an adjoining information center. A pilot scale aquatic plant facility treating up to 200,000 gallons per day of wastewater is being studied. Water hyacinths, duckweed, and a constructed wetlands ecosystem treat the wastewater. Data acquired during 1991-1992 indicate that during all climatic conditions in Tucson, AZ, secondary effluent can be upgraded to tertiary standards. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) has been reduced to 10 mg/l or less. Data is also being acquired on nitrogen removal and evapotranspirational losses. As a result of the research to date, a constructed wetlands ecosystem has been implemented at the Arizona Sonora Desert Museum to treat their effluent for subsequent use as irrigation for their facility.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

Progress 01/01/91 to 12/30/91

Outputs
Residential water conservation, rainfall harvesting, and greywater reuse systemsare being evaluated. A single-family residence is currently being operated as a research facility in Tucson, AZ. A second-generation research/demonstration facility is to be built in Phoenix, AZ, at the Desert Botanical Garden. Groundbreaking for this facility (Desert House) took place in November, 1991. The project will include computer monitoring of water and energy use and interactive public access to data in an adjoining information center. A pilot scale water hyacinth facility treating up to 200,000 gallons per day of wastewater is being studied. Data acquired during 1990-91 indicate that during all climatic conditions in Tucson, AZ, secondary effluent can be upgraded to tertiary standards. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) have been reduced to 10 mg/l or less. Data is also being acquired on Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), nitrogen removal, and evapotranspirational losses. Plans are being developed to explore the use of other plant species to treat wastewater in wetlands systems. In addition, preliminary plans for operational facilities are being prepared.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• KARPISCAK, M.M., R.G. BRITTAIN, C.P. GERBA, and K.E. FOSTER. 1991. Demonstrating residential water conservation and reuse in the Sonoran Desert: Casa del Agua and Desert House. Wat. Sci. Tech. 24(9):323-330.
• KARPSICAK, M.M., K.E. FOSTER, and N. SCHMIDT. 1990. Residential water conservation: Casa del Agua. Wat. Res. Bull. 26(6):939-948.

Progress 07/01/90 to 12/30/90

Outputs
Various systems to improve the quality and facilitate the use of greywater have been developed and are being evaluted. A single-family retrofitted residence is currently operated as a research facility in Tucson, Arizona. Final construction documents have been prepared for a second-generation reseach/demonstration facility to be built in Phoenix, Arizona. This new facility will incorporate aspects of both water as well as energy conservation research. Included in the Phoenix facility will be complete computer monitoring of water and energy use and current public access to data in an adjoining information center. A pilot scale water hyacinth facility, treating 200,000 gallons per day of secondary and primary effluent is being reported. Preliminary data indicate that during all climatic conditions in Tucson, Arizona, secondary effluent can be upgraded to tertiary standards. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) have been reduced to 10 mg/1 or less. Data on both the biological and chemical constituents of greywater and waste-water have been acquired during 1990. Additional data are required to substantiate the validity of treatment systems under various climatic conditions and operational parameters.

Impacts
(N/A)

Publications

• NO PUBLICATIONS REPORTED THIS PERIOD.