Progress 10/01/99 to 09/03/05
Outputs
Most of the accomplishments in this project had been the development of a range of techniques for the automated analysis of turfgrass quality and health status. Imaging sensors had not been previously evaluated for their potential to measure these turf attributes. Turf, a very low canopy perennial crop, presents some unique challenges in the use of imaging sensors. A series of experiments was conducted to examine the base range and accuracy of typical image sensors on turf cut at a low and medium mowing height. The results of this investigation indicated that imaging sensors had no inherent limitations for their use in sensing turf quality and health. Subsequent studies have focused on the early detection of important Turfgrass diseases (Pythium Blight and Brown Patch) on creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera). Experiments were conducted in growth chambers under artificial illumination. Treatments consisted of either Pythium or Brown Patch inoculated bentgrass
seedlings and non-inoculated controls. Imaging sensors indicated the development of Pythium disease up to 1.5 hours prior to visual symptoms, while indications of Brown Patch disease was sensed up to 25 hours prior to visual symptoms. Studies directed at assessing turfgrass quality have been conducted over the past several years. In these experiments, a broad range of sensing instruments including both imaging and non-imaging sensors have been utilized. This work, sponsored by the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP), used currently active Tall Fescue, Kentucky bluegrass and fairway height creeping bentgrass NTEP variety trials. Each plot was evaluated monthly by subjective human evaluation, an imaging sensor, digital camera, TCM-500 color meter (Spectrum Technologies, Inc.) and a CM-1000 chlorophyll meter (Spectrum Technologies, Inc.). Final results for these experiments are pending. The estimation of Turfgrass texture (average leaf blade width) is very difficult and often
inconsistent. The automation of this process through sensors has not been accomplished and presents many significant challenges. A current set of experiments is being conducted to develop an algorithm of Turfgrass texture from collected images. Only limited success has been realized currently, but a number of alternative approaches are being explored. Many of the experiments evaluating techniques for automating the estimation of Turfgrass quality are being continued in a new hatch project (ILLU-875-396).
Impacts
The ongoing and completed research of this project has developed several new techniques to automate turf quality and health status. Many of these techniques can be easily adapted to a wide range of food and fiber crops. The automation of quality and health status assessment will not only increase the efficiency of future research, but will provide a low-cost, noninvasive mechanism for monitoring crop production and nine cropland areas.
Publications
- Martin, D.L., Wehner, D.J., Throssell, C.S. and Fermanian, T.W. 2005. Evaluation of four crop water stress index models for irrigation scheduling of penncross creeping bentgrass fairways. International Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 10:373-386.
- Branham, B.E., Sharp, W., Kohler, E.A., Fermanian, T.W. and Voigt, T.B. 2005. Selective control of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) in Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) turf. International Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 10:1164-1169.
- Cella, L., Voigt, T., Fermanian, T. and Branham, B. 2005. Growth characteristics of Kentucky bluegrasses maintained as golf course fairways. International Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 10:661-665.
- Schmitz, S., Voigt, T., Fermanian, T. and Branham, B. 2005. Repair mix:seed ratios for optimizing golf course divot recovery. International Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. Annexe 10:50-51.
- Narra, S., Fermanian, T.W. and Voigt, T.B. 2005. Evaluation of imaging and non-imaging sensing techniques in quantifying different turf quality parameters. 2005 Annual Meeting Abstracts American Society of Agronomy.
- Narra, S., Fermanian, T.W., Voigt, T.B. and Grift, T.E. 2005. An objective model for quantifying turfgrass texture. 2005 Annual Meeting Abstracts American Society of Agronomy.
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Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04
Outputs
Research has shown that reflectance sensors can measure some turf qualities. Ambient illumination variability can affect sensor output. The objective of this study was to investigate turf spectral responses under variable ambient illumination and methods to compensate for such variability. Turfgrass images and reflectance, ambient illumination, and sensor parameter data were collected for short and tall canopy turfs under full sun, partly cloudy, and cloudy atmospheric conditions from sunrise to sunset. Percent reflectance was calculated for red (450nm), green (550nm), and near-infrared (800nm) wavelengths. Additional reflectance indices were calculated for red/near-infrared, green/infrared, NDVI(R), and NDVI(G). Reflectance distributions from sunrise to sunset for both canopy types and all atmospheric conditions approximated the response of a calibrated flat panel with consistent reflectance. In all tested atmospheric conditions, the standard deviation of reflectance
for red, green, and near-infrared wavelengths was significantly lower than standard deviations for corrected responses in previous agricultural studies. Consistent turf reflectance calculations were produced with less correction than calculations noted in previous agricultural studies, where corrections for large solar zenith angles, a reflectance function of zenith angles, and sensor non-linearity were used.
Impacts
We are currently conducting three research projects evaluating the potential of imaging multi-spectral radiometry for nitrogen and moisture analysis and disease determination in turf.
Publications
- Anderson, Z., Fermanian, T.W., Frank, T. and Spomer, L.A. 2004. Methods of direct sensing to measure turfgrass diseases. 2004 Annual Meeting Abstracts American Society of Agronomy.
- Schmidt, M., Fermanian, T. and Reid, J. 2004. Variable ambient illumination of facts on turfgrass reflectance. 2004 Annual Meeting Abstracts American Society of Agronomy.
- Fermanian, T., Schmidt, M. and Reid, J. 2004. Environment and sensor configuration effects on image sensor performance for turfgrass data collection. 2004 Annual Meeting Abstracts American Society of Agronomy.
- Narra, S., Fermanian, T.W., Swaider, J.M., Voigt, T.B. and Tian, L.F. 2004. Evaluation of machine vision and multispectral radiometry in assessment of turf nutrition and moisture status. 2004 Annual Meeting Abstracts American Society of Agronomy.
- Han, S., Fermanian, T.W., Juvik, J.A. and Spomer, L.A. 2004. Total nonstructural carbohydrate storage in creeping bentgrass treated with trinexapac-ethyl. HortScience 39:(6):1461-1464.
- Narra, S., Fermanian, T.W., Swiader, J.M., Voigt, T.B. and Branham, B.E. 2004. Total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) assessment in creeping bentgrass under mowing-stress conditions. Crop Science 44(3):408-413.
- Narra, S., Fermanian, T.W. and Swiader, J.M. 2004. Analysis of mono and polysaccharides in creeping bentgrass turf using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy. Crop Science 45(1):266-273.
- Anderson, Z., Fermanian, T.W. and Wilkinson, H,T. 2004. Early detection of turf disease through direct sensing of a creeping bentgrass canopy. 2004 Annual Meeting Abstracts American Society of Agronomy.
- Cella, L., Voigt, T.B. and Fermanian, T.W. 2004. Measuring ball lie on gulf course fairways crop science 44(1):214-217.
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Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03
Outputs
Conventional analytical methods available for measuring nonstructural carbohydrate concentrations (TNC) in turfgrasses are time-consuming and not suitable for routine analysis. The objective of this study was to examine the utility of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) to analyze the concentrations of glucose, fructose, sucrose and fructan in creeping bentgrass {Agrostis palustris Huds. [= A. stolonifera var. palustris (Huds.) Farw.]} clippings, with an emphasis on sample collection and preparation techniques. Samples were collected from a field experiment and subjected to different post-clipping sampling techniques to determine the stability of carbohydrates through processing. Instant freezing in liquid nitrogen, rapid cooling in a dry ice chamber and ambient temperature collection techniques were examined. TNC and fructan levels were 19 and 9% higher in samples treated with liquid nitrogen and held in dry ice followed by freeze-drying than the other
sampling techniques. Calibration equations were obtained by modified partial least square (PLS) regression analysis of conventional laboratory analysis values on 97 randomly selected NIR spectra using a scanning monochromator NIR spectrophotometer and associated computer software. Calibration equations were externally validated with 15 additional samples selected from the original calibration set. The standard errors of calibration (SEC) were 0.10%, 0.17%, 0.08%, 0.37% and 0.56% for glucose, fructose, sucrose, fructan, and TNC respectively. Predicted and observed values for the concentrations of all TNC components were highly correlated (r2 > 0.90). We conclude that NIRS can analyze the TNC concentration of creeping bentgrass clippings more conveniently and faster than conventional analytical techniques.
Impacts
We are currently conducting three research projects evaluating the potential of imaging multi-spectral radiometry for nitrogen and moisture analysis and disease determination in turf.
Publications
- Fermanian, T., Schmidt, M., Narra, S. and Anderson, Z. 2003 Automating the Task of Evaluating Your Turf. On Course 57(1) June 21-27.
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Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02
Outputs
A field experiment was conducted from 1997 to 2001 at the Urbana Landscape Horticulture Research Facility to determine seasonal changes in TNC or storage sugars accumulated in bentgrass clippings. The experimental area was composed of eight creeping bentgrass cultivars, each mowed at three different heights. Different mowing heights were imposed on each cultivar as a controllable plant stress. Turfgrass quality, dry clippings weight and TNC were evaluated either biweekly or once a month over three growing seasons. An analysis of quality and clippings weights did not indicate any seasonal trends. The more consistent measured parameter was TNC, which presented the same general trend for each of the three seasons but at different degrees of intensity. For almost every date of evaluation, TNC levels in plots mowed at 0.25 inches were observed to be significantly greater than the measured TNC of plots mowed at higher heights. Probably the most interesting observation was
the very high accumulations of TNC during the late fall period. This was during a period of cool temperatures with little vertical growth of the turf. This situation of relatively high photosynthetic activity with little growth allows for the continuing accumulation of TNC in blade tissue with very little utilization. One of our original objectives for this study was to develop a consistent baseline of TNC levels found in fairway height creeping bentgrass across the season. While there were some yearly differences, very similar values were found each season. Another objective was to determine the differences in measured carbohydrate components. TNC is the accumulation of all analyzed components. If any one component showed unique seasonal accumulation patterns, it might permit simplified data collection. Observed accumulations in glucose, fructose, sucrose and fructan showed that while total quantities varied, the ratio of components was relatively similar for most dates of
collection. This phenomenon needs further examination.
Impacts
We are currently searching for signature reflectance patterns from turf for use in an eventual "Precision Turfgrass Management System". This initial research has indicated a characteristic signature reflectance for total nonstructural carbohydrates (TNC) in turfgrass plants. The TNC content of a turf is one indicator of potential future growth.
Publications
- Fermanian, T.W., Shurtleff, M.C., Randell, R., Wilkinson, H.T. and Nixon, P. 2003 Controlling Turfgrass Pests. Third Edition Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 654 pp.
- Fermanian, T.W., Branham, B.E. and Narra, S. 2002. Sensing turfgrass carbohydrate and nitrogen status with NIRS. 2002 Annual Meeting Abstracts
- Narra, S., Fermanian, T.W., Swiader, J.M. and Branham, B.E. 2002. Efficient sampling techniques for turfgrass carbohydrate analysis. 2002 Annual Meeting Abstracts.
- Narra, S., Fermanian, T.W., Swiader, J.M., Branham, B.E., Wilkinson, H.T. and Voigt, T.B. 2002. Seasonal variation in carbohydrates in creeping bentgrass under simulated stress. 2002 Annual Meeting Abstracts.
- Voigt, T.B., Schmitz, S.J., Branham, B.E. and Fermanian, T.W. 2002. Evaluating practices to speed divot recovery. 2002 Annual Meeting Abstracts.
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Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01
Outputs
This was a year to investigate the development of several basic technologies for a future precision turf management system. Data collection techniques are being developed for field applications. Automating the exploration of databases for rapid analysis is also being explored. This is being initiated through the development of several web-based management tools. A computer-based tool was successfully developed to introduce turfgrass species to college-level students. This tool was designed for use on the Macintosh operating system (OS) only and required distribution of the application to each intended user. With the expanding use of the Internet and World Wide Web for distance education, the conversion and enhancement of Turfgrass Species to a web-based tool was undertaken. The objective of this development was to make the tool available to an expanded audience, including turfgrass professionals and other nonstudents. The Web-based Turfgrass Species (WTS) was designed
as a simple, card format presentation of 33 commonly used grass species for turfs. The program was organized into three main components. Initially, users can view information on each species organized into groups for appropriate use in a number of common turf situations. Each species can be displayed with a drawing of identifying features, plant characteristics, intended use, reproductive information, environmental adaptation, and special problems associated with its use. In a second component, users can search the species database to determine which species are appropriate for establishment within predetermined constraints. A final component offers users the opportunity to evaluate their knowledge of the use of turfgrass species. This quiz section selects random questions from a database and provides a graphical summary of the quiz results. User's performance is added to the database for over-all tool evaluation. In a two-year period, more than 10,000 visitors have viewed WTS.
Approximately 6% of the visitors were from outside of the United States. More than 1,000 visitors have returned to the site more than once.
Impacts
Scanning technology is being evaluated that may eventually provided more rapid assessment of turfgrass needs in order to target applications of fertilizers and pesticides to areas where they are needed. This will greatly reduce the total quantity of these materials introduced to the environment.
Publications
- VOIGT, T.B., FERMANIAN, T.W. and HALEY, J.E. 2001. Influence of mowing and nitrogen fertility on tall fescue turf. International Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 9:953-956.
- FERMANIAN, T.W., BRAGA, P.P. and VOIGT, T.B. 2001. Web-based turfgrass species selection tool. International Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 9:66-71.
- LICKFELDT, D.W., VOIGT, T.B., BRANHAM, B.E. and FERMANIAN, T.W. 2001. Evaluation of allelopathy in cool season turfgrass species. International Turfgrass Soc. Res. J. 9:1013-1018.
- FERMANIAN, T.W., JEONG, H., SCHMIDT, M. and NARRA, S. 2001. Precision turf - myth or reality? 2000 NCTE Illinois Turfgrass Research Report, Turfgrass Series 7, Nov. 2001, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, p. 6-9.
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Progress 01/01/00 to 12/31/00
Outputs
While a subjective scouting of turf by the resident turf manager is important in a precision turf management system, objective measurements of plant health will also be very useful. A study was initiated in the fall of 1997 to evaluate the potential for correlating accumulated plant carbohydrates with general plant health. If this correlation could be established, optical sensing equipment might someday scan the turf surface to establish zones of plant stress before they are visible. This experiment has been described in previous Illinois Turfgrass Research reports. The study includes eight cultivars of creeping bentgrass maintained as a golf course fairway. Each cultivar is mowed at three heights (0.25, 0.5, 0.75 in.) to provide increasing levels of stress on the turf. The main objective of this research is to develop a seasonal model of the accumulation of storage or nonstructural carbohydrates in bentgrasses. Resistance to dollar spot and clipping production were
reported last year. Evaluation of accumulated total nonstructural carbohydrates (TNC) has been much slower, however. This has been due to the difficulty in maintaining relatively unstable sugars in plant samples after they are harvested. The collecting, storage and drying of the bentgrass clipping tissue must be conducted at freezing temperatures to minimize the conversion of simple sugars. This has required the use of a freeze-drying apparatus. Through an internal grant, we were recently able to purchase this instrument. Since samples were collected every two weeks during the growing season, a large backlog of samples has accumulated. We are now in the process of drying and preparing these samples for analysis. Of the 24 dates that TNC samples were collected, only six have been fully analyzed. While the most stressful mowing height (0.25 in.) accumulated significantly less TNC on four of the six dates, it had greater accumulated TNC shortly after establishment. The cultivar
'Penncross' tended to have lower TNC levels on most dates of evaluation, but no clear trends have been established. The results from 1998 may be reflective of an establishment year and seasonal trends may be more apparent after the remaining 1999 and 2000 samples are analyzed.
Impacts
The development of precision turf technology will help to reduce inputs of fertilizers, irrigation water and pesticides on golf courses, sports fields and sod production areas. The initial task in the development of this technology is to provide accurate yet simple mechanisms for gathering data on specific site requirements. This project is focusing on the development of this input technology.
Publications
- Golombek, C.H., Fermanian, T.W. and Braga, P.P. 1999. Development and evaluation of software for spatial record-keeping for golf course fairways. Agronomy J. 91(6):1042-1046.
- Fermanian, T.W., Jeong, H., Schmidt, M. and Narra, S. 2000. Seeking precision turf. 2000 NCTE Illinois Turfgrass Research Report, Turfgrass Series 5, Nov. 2000, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, p. 10-11.
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Progress 10/01/99 to 12/31/99
Outputs
Project started 10/01/1999, no results yet to report.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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