Progress 10/01/08 to 09/30/13
Outputs
OUTPUTS: During the first three years, we studied the importance of barley grain hardness as related to food processing, anthocyanins and antioxidant activity of colored barley and the role of flour particle size on sponge cake (SC) quality of soft white wheat. <P> We explored microscopic endosperm structural characteristics responsible for variation in kernel hardness of barley, identified a positive relationship between endosperm cell wall thickness and kernel hardness, and observed a loosely packed endosperm with numerous A and B type granules in soft kernel and tightly packed endosperm and numerous A type granules covered by a protein matrix with few B type granules in hard kernel. We found that β-glucan content of hulless barley appears to be associated with cell wall thickness of hulless barley and particle size distribution of barley flour; and identified that the purple barley contained about 10 to 20 times higher amounts of anthocyanins than yellow, black or blue colored barley, and exhibited the highest antioxidant activity. We evaluated the effect and magnitude of flour particle size on SC baking quality and found that flour particle size, rather than protein content, had a major influence on SC volume of soft white wheat flour. <P> In the fourth year, we evaluated the qualitative and quantitative effects of wheat starch on SC baking quality. The amylose content of soft white and club wheat flour was positively related to the volume of SC (r=0.790, P<0.001). Normal and waxy starch blends having amylose content of 25, 20, 15 and 10% produced SCs of 1570, 1435, 1385 and 1185 mL in volume, respectively. More than 80 g starch or more than 75% starch in starch-gluten blends in replacement of 100 g wheat flour was needed to produce SC having the maximum volume potential. Starch properties including amylose content and pasting properties as well as proportion of starch evidently play significant roles in SC baking quality of wheat flour. <P> We tested the possibility of replacing fresh eggs with dried or frozen eggs in the SC baking test and developed a non-baking prediction test of SC baking potential. Compared to SC baked with fresh eggs, SC baked with dried egg powders were smaller in volume, but still differentiated soft wheat flours of various SC baking potentials. Frozen eggs produced a similar density of egg foam and comparable volume of SC to fresh eggs, indicating that frozen eggs can be an appropriate replacement of fresh eggs in the SC baking test. Both flour-sugar-water and flour-water batters exhibited larger variations in flow distance and viscosity than in density. Flow distance and viscosity of all three types of batters correlated positively and negatively with sponge cake volume, respectively, showing a highest correlation coefficient of 0.778 (P<0.01) between the flow distance of flour-water batter and SC volume. Bostwick flow distance of flour-water batter appears to be the most appropriate estimate of sponge cake baking potential of soft white wheat flour. PARTICIPANTS: Tracy Harris, Hyun-Wook Choi, Craig Morris, Doug Engle, Sindhu Nair, & Chang-Ho Lee. TARGET AUDIENCES: Cereal chemists, wheat quality scientists, wheat breeders, soft wheat processors, wheat traders PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
Elucidation of the mechanism of barley kernel hardness helps us better control grain hardness of barley through genetic and environmental management as well as post-harvest processing. This will speed up the identification and production of barley with specifically suitable kernel hardness for food uses. With improved understanding of the association of β-glucan content of barley kernels with endosperm structure and particle size distribution of barley flour, we will be better able to select barley of appropriate β-glucan content for specific food uses and overcome potential challenges in utilizing high β-glucan barley in the preparation of food products. Our recognition of colored barleys as a unique functional ingredient of high antioxidant activity as well as a natural food colorant will be helpful for the promotion of barley for food production and consumption. Identification and recognition of antioxidant activity as a beneficial food use trait of barley will also be helpful for variety improvement of food barley and raw material selection for food uses. Recognition of the importance of flour particle size in sponge cake baking quality of wheat flour presents direction for the improvement of soft white wheat quality for making sponge cake. A simple, fast non-baking test of flour-water batter viscosity will allow us to screen an increased number of soft white wheat breeding lines for end-use quality. This test will further expedite the development of soft white wheat varieties with superior sponge cake baking quality. Starch is the major constituent of wheat flour, whereas little is known about the quantitative and qualitative roles of starch on SC quality. From this study, we learned that rather than protein content, starch and amylose content have larger influence on SC baking quality of wheat flour. This provides us with an important selection tool of wheat breeding lines in development of elite soft white wheat varieties for Asian markets. Improved simplicity, consistency, and reproducibility of SC baking test will be achieved with adoption of dried egg powder and frozen eggs in replacement of fresh eggs. Bostwick flow distance of flour-water batter appears to be an effective, non-baking prediction test for SC baking potential of soft wheat flour, which can be conveniently used in screening a large number of breeding lines for their SC baking potential. From the four year study, we published seven refereed journal articles, one oral presentation and nine poster presentations. <P> Awarded Grant (s) and Contract (s) Quality Assessment of Washington State University Wheat Breeding Samples. Baik, B.-K. & Harris, T. Washington Grain Commission. ($44,000). Development of novel processing technologies and selection of superior varieties for enhanced food uses of whole wheat and product quality. Baik, B.-K. RDA-NICS-ROK. ($40,000). Health Benefits of Organic, Conventional, and No-Till Wheat. Baik, B.-K. & Fuerst, P. BioAg Project. ($30,000).
Publications
- Choi, H.-W., and Baik, B.-K. 2012. Use of dried egg powder in sponge cake baking test and flour-water batter viscosity as an estimate of sponge cake baking quality. AACCI Annual Meeting, Hollywood, FL, September 30-October 3. Poster. http://www.aaccnet.org/meetings/Documents/2012Abstracts/p12ma23.htm.
- Choi, H.-W., and Baik, B.-K. 2012. Significance of starch property and quantity on sponge cake baking quality of soft white wheat. AACCI Annual Meeting, Hollywood, FL, September 30-October 3. Poster. http://www.aaccnet.org/meetings/Documents/2012Abstracts/p12ma22.htm.
- Heo H., B.Baik, K.Kim, C.Kang, B.Choo, C.Park 2012. Influence of amylose content on cooking time and textural properties of white salted noodles. Food Science and Biotechnology. 21:345-362.
- Baik B., I.Han 2012. Cooking, roasting and fermentation of chickpeas, lentils, peas and soybeans for fortification of bread. Cereal Chemistry. 89:269-275.
- Kang C., J.Jeung, B.Baik, C.Park 2012. Effects of allelic variations in Wx-1, Glu-D1, Glu-B3 and Pinb-D1 loci on flour characteristics and white salted noodle making quality of wheat flour. Cereal Chemistry. 89:296-306.
- Choi, H.-W., Harris, T., and Baik, B.-K. 2012. Improvement of sponge cake baking test procedure for simple and reliable estimation of soft white wheat quality. Cereal Chem. 89:73-78.
- Choi, H.-W., and Baik, B.-K. 2013. Significance of particle size on sponge cake baking quality of wheat flour. Cereal Chem. Vol. 90, Number 2. pp 150-156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-07-12-0088-R.
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Progress 01/01/11 to 12/31/11
Outputs
OUTPUTS: We evaluated the effect and magnitude of flour particle size on sponge cake baking quality. Two different sets of wheat flours, including flour of reduced particle size obtained by re-grinding and flour fractions of different particle size separated by sieving, were tested for batter properties and sponge cake baking quality. The proportion of small particles (<55 um) of flour was increased by 11.6-26.9% by re-grinding. Despite the increased starch damage and sodium carbonate retention capacity, re-ground flour exhibited reduced density and increased viscosity of the flour-water batter, and consequently produced sponge cake of improved volume by 0.8-15.0%. Volumes of sponge cake baked from small (< 55 um), intermediate (55-88 um) and large (> 88 um) particle fractions of soft and club wheat flours were 1353-1450, 1040-1195, and 955-1130 mL, respectively. Even with comparable or higher protein content, intermediate particle fractions of wheat flour produced larger volumes of sponge cake than large particle fractions. The small particle fractions in soft white and club wheat exhibited lower flour-water batter density (102.6-105.9 g/100 mL) than those of large and intermediate particle fractions (105.2-108.2 g/100 mL). The lowest viscosity was exhibited in the flour-water batter of small particle fractions, followed by intermediate and large particle fractions. We analyzed soft white (SW) and hard red (HR) wheat grain produced in organic, no-till, and conventional cropping systems for grain characteristics, ash, protein, total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity and baking quality. SW wheat grain produced with no-tillage exhibited significantly greater kernel diameter and weight than grain produced under conventional tillage. No-till cultivation lowered protein content and antioxidant capacity, whereas it imparted no apparent effects on the quality of cookie, cake and pan bread. Organic SW wheat grain (produced in organic cropping systems) was higher in test weight, kernel diameter and kernel weight than non-organic grain produced in conventional cropping systems. Organic cultivation appeared to produce harder kernels of HR wheat than conventional cultivation without affecting kernel weight and size. Compared to non-organic wheat grain, organic SW wheat grain was lower in flour protein content by 2.19% with low fertility and higher by 0.8% with high fertility. Organic SW wheat tended to produce a larger volume of sponge cake and a smaller volume of bread. PARTICIPANTS: The participants of this project include: 1) Tracy Harris, research technologist, who conducts the end-use quality evaluation testing of WSU wheat breeding lines including sponge cake baking test, summarizes and evaluates the obtained data and supervises an undergraduate time-slip helper; 2) Hyun-Wook Choi, Ph.D. graduate student, who is working on the improvement of the sponge cake baking test procedure; 3) Eun-Young Park, Ph.D. graduate student, investigating the health benefits of organic, conventional and no-till wheat; and 4) Pat Fuerst, who is a co-investigator of the organic and no-till wheat project. TARGET AUDIENCES: Wheat breeders, growers, traders, food processors and buyers PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
We found that particle size reduction of flour by re-grinding improved sponge cake volume, despite increased starch damage and flow-water batter viscosity. The finer the flour particles, the smaller the viscosity of flour-water batter and the larger the volume of sponge cake. Flour particle size, rather than protein content, had a major influence on sponge cake volume of soft white wheat. Flour-water batter viscosity could be an effective means to estimate the sponge cake volume potential of wheat flour. These results not only improve our understanding of the importance of flour particle size in sponge cake baking quality of wheat flour, but also provide direction for the improvement of soft white wheat quality for making sponge cake. A simple, fast non-baking test of flour-water batter viscosity will allow us to test and screen an increased number of soft white wheat breeding lines for end-use quality. This will further expedite the development of soft white wheat varieties with superior sponge cake baking quality. We learned that kernel physical properties of wheat were largely affected by cropping system. Soft white wheat under no-till or organic systems had soft, heavy, large and opaque kernels, and hard red wheat grown organically showed a higher hardness index. No-till and organic systems produced lower antioxidant capacity with lower total phenolic content. This might be partially related to the kernel characteristics of no-till and organic wheat, which were larger and heavier. Grain protein content was lower in no-till wheat and organically grown soft white wheat under low fertility, but heavily fertilized organic wheat had higher protein content than conventional wheat. End product quality was not significantly affected by no-till, organic and conventional cropping systems, but organic wheat produced larger cake and smaller bread volumes. Considering the growing consumer demand for organic and no-till wheat, due to their perception as being safe, healthy and sustainable, the information obtained from a scientific study of functional and nutritional characteristics of wheat grain as influenced by organic and no-till cropping systems will be highly valuable to consumers, producers and food processors. Documented health benefits of consuming organic and no-till wheat would further promote consumers' interest in purchasing sustainably produced wheat. This will ultimately promote both sustainable and profitable wheat production.
Publications
- Nair, S.G., S.E. Ullrich, and B. Baik. 2011. Association of Barley Kernel Hardness with Physical Grain Traits and Food Processing Parameters. Cereal Chemistry. 88(2):147-152.
- Nair, S.G., M. Knoblauch, S.E. Ullrich, and B. Baik. 2011. Microstructure of hard and soft kernels of barley. Journal of Cereal Science. 54(3):354-362.
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Progress 01/01/10 to 12/31/10
Outputs
OUTPUTS: We investigated the association of β-glucan content with various food processing parameters, and the total anthocyanin content and antioxidant activities of colored barley genotypes, to explore their potential as functional food ingredients. Seventeen hulless lines with β-glucan content ranging from 5.6 to 9.8% were evaluated for hardness index (HI), vitreousness, and protein and amylose content. HI ranged from 54.0 to 69.5 and L*, measured as an indicator of vitreousness, varied from 54.9 to 61.1. Protein and amylose contents ranged from 13.4 to 17.8% and from 8.4 to 26.3%, respectively. HI, L*, and protein and amylose content showed no significant association with β-glucan content. Three high β-glucan and three low β-glucan lines were examined for endosperm structure using light microscopy (LM), and evaluated for flour particle size (PS), pearling properties, water absorption and cooked kernel texture. Endosperm cell wall thickness measured using LM ranged from 3.62 to 5.91 micrometers in the high β-glucan lines, while it ranged from 3.57 to 5.65 micrometers in the low β-glucan lines. Average PS>106 micrometer was 43.8% for the high β-glucan lines and 40.8% for the low β-glucan lines, and was significantly higher for the former. Average pearling loss after six minutes of pearling was 25.3% in high β-glucan lines and 28.8% in low β-glucan lines and was significantly greater in the low β-glucan lines. Water absorption of kernels soaked for 8 hr and texture of kernels cooked for 40 min were not significantly different between high and low β-glucan lines. The results indicate that β-glucan content of barley kernels influences particle size distribution of barley flour and pearling property of barley grains. Four hulless barley genotypes of various seed color contained total anthocyanins of 35.1, 80.9, 764.6 and 6785.3 microgram/g in yellow, black, blue and purple barley grains, respectively. Bran fractions contained more than twice as many anthocyanins as whole grains in black, blue and purple barleys. The purple barley contained 11 anthocyanins, whereas only one type of anthocyanin, a peonidin derivative, was detected in blue, black and yellow barley grains. Cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-(6"-succinyl) glucoside and two unknown peonidin derivatives were the major anthocyanins detected in purple barley. DPPH and superoxide radical scavenging activities and total antioxidant activity of acetone extracts were highest in purple barley, which also showed the highest total anthocyanin content, followed by black and blue barleys. Yellow barley was lowest in total anthocyanin content and antioxidant activities of acetone extracts. DPPH radical scavenging activities of water extracts were much lower than those of acetone extracts, but differences in total antioxidant activities between acetone and water extracts were small and inconsistent. PARTICIPANTS: The participants of this project include: 1) Sindhu Nair, former Ph.D. student, who has studied the significance and nature of barley kernel hardness, and its variation among U.S. barley breeding lines; 2) Steve Ullrich, who leads the WSU Barley breeding program; 3) Chang-Ho Lee, visiting scholar, who has conducted the quantitative and qualitative determination of anthocyanins and antioxidant activity of colored barley varieties. TARGET AUDIENCES: Target Audience: Barley breeders, growers, traders, food processors and buyers. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
Increasing demand for nutritious, fiber-rich food products has made barley an ideal candidate for grain-based functional foods. Among the diverse barley genotypes, hulless barley holds great potential in food processing as it can be directly processed into flour, flakes or grits without dehulling. We found that the β-glucan content of hulless barley appears to be associated with cell wall thickness of hulless barley and particle size distribution of barley flour. Pigmented grains of corn, rice and wheat are rich in anthocyanins and are used in the manufacture of unique food ingredients and products as natural food colorants. Anthocyanins are also recognized as potential antioxidants and free radical scavengers. Bioactive properties give anthocyanins considerable potential in the food industry as safe and effective food colorants, and may support further utilization of pigmented grains as functional food ingredients. We showed that the purple barley contained about 10 to 20 times higher amount of anthocyanins than yellow, black or blue colored barley, and exhibited the highest antioxidant activity. With improved understanding of the association of β-glucan content of barley kernels with endosperm structure and particle size distribution of barley flour, we will be better able to select barley of appropriate β-glucan content for specific food uses and overcome potential challenges in utilizing high β-glucan barley in the preparation of food products. Our recognition of colored barleys as a unique functional ingredient of high antioxidant activity as well as a natural food colorant will be helpful for the promotion of barley for food production and consumption. Identification and recognition of antioxidant activity as a beneficial food use trait of barley will also be helpful for variety improvement of food barley and raw material selection for food uses.
Publications
- Nair, S.G., S.E.Ullrich, T.K.Blake, B.Cooper, C.A.Griffey, P.M.Hayes, D.J.Hole, R.D.Horsley, D.E.Obert, K.P.Smith, G.J.Muehlbauer, and B.Baik. 2010. Variation in Kernel Hardness and Associated Traits in USA Barley Breeding Lines. Cereal Chemistry. 87:461-466.
- Ullrich, S.E., B.Baik, and Z.Quinde-Axtell. 2010. Barley for Food: Traits and Improvements. Barley Genetics X, Proc. Int'l. Barley Genet. Symp.. Ed. S. Ceccarelli. 10th International Barley Genetics Symposium. April 5-10, 2008. Alexandria, Egypt. Aleppo, Syria. ICARD.
- Park, C., and B.Baik. 2010. Recovery and Purity of Isolated Barley Starch and Protein as Affected by Fractionation Water Temperature. Cereal Chemistry. 87:561-565.
- Nair, S.G., S.E.Ullrich, and B.Baik. 2010. Association of Barley Kernel Hardness with Physical Grain Traits and Food Processing Parameters. Cereal Chemistry.
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Progress 01/01/09 to 12/31/09
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Kernel hardness is an important food-use quality trait of barley, affecting post-harvest handling, pearling and milling properties of grains, flour particle size distribution, and eventually processing and product quality. Our previous study on barley kernel hardness demonstrated that there is a large genotypic variation in kernel hardness, that kernel hardness is strongly influenced by both genotype and environment, and that it is associated with kernel vitreousness. We explored microscopic endosperm structural characteristics responsible for variation in kernel hardness of barley. Transverse sections of six diverse barley lines for SKCS hardness index (HI) (31.8-95.0) were used for light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies. The bulk of the seed was composed of starchy endosperm that showed both A and B type starch granules. Endosperm cell wall thickness measured under LM varied from 1.4-9.6 micrometers for soft lines, while it was 2.3-13.7 micrometers for hard lines. The average cell wall thickness was 3.0 micrometer for soft lines and 5.5 micrometer for hard lines and was positively correlated with HI, suggesting that hard grains have thicker cell walls than soft grains. Under SEM, soft lines showed loosely packed endosperm with numerous A and B type granules. Hard lines exhibited tighter packed endosperm and numerous A type granules covered by a protein matrix, but fewer B type granules that appeared to be obscured by the protein covering. These results suggest that barley HI is associated with cell wall thickness and packing of the endosperm. PARTICIPANTS: Tracy Harris, Sindhu Nair, Steve Ullrich, and Michael Knoblauch TARGET AUDIENCES: Cereal chemists, and barley breeders, processors and food manufacturers PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
Increasing awareness of the role of whole grains in controlling lifestyle related diseases has made barley an ideal candidate for functional foods. Recent research highlighting the health benefits of beta-glucans is rekindling interest in barley as a food source. Due to the limited use of barley for food, there is a lack of experience in breeding and cultivating food barley varieties. In order to meet the demand for food barley, a thorough understanding of grain characteristics and their functionality as required for food uses is crucial. Grain hardness is an important trait known to influence food processing and product quality in wheat, a close relative of barley. The role of endosperm texture in malting quality is well recognized, but grain hardness has not been widely investigated for food uses. The major focus of our study was the micro-structure of the kernel responsible for variations in grain hardness of barley. There were evident differences in kernel endosperm micro-structure between soft and hard kernels. We identified a positive relationship between endosperm cell wall thickness and kernel hardness, and observed a loosely packed endosperm with numerous A and B type granules in soft kernel and tightly packed endosperm and numerous A type granules covered by protein matrix with few B type granules in hard kernel. This information can improve our understanding of the mechanism of barley kernel hardness and help us better control grain hardness of barley through genetic and environmental management as well as post-harvest processing. This information will speed up the identification and production of barley with suitable kernel hardness for food uses. Food processors will be able to utilize an increased amount of barley in various food products with improved quality attributes. The major economic impact of this study will result from the increased use of barley for food products.
Publications
- Park, E., B.Baik, and S.Lim. 2009. Influences of temperature-cycled storage on retrogradation and in vitro digestibility of waxy maize starch gel. Journal of Cereal Science. 50:43-48.
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Progress 01/01/08 to 12/31/08
Outputs
OUTPUTS: Kernel hardness of barley may influence post-harvest handling, pearling and milling properties of grains, flour particle size distribution and eventually the processing and product quality, as well documented in wheat. We determined the influence of genotype (G) and environment (E) on kernel hardness of barley and to explore the association of kernel hardness with other grain characteristics including size, shape, density and vitreousness. G and E effects on physical characteristics of barley kernel were determined using 14 genetically diverse barley lines grown in 12 locations with 3 replications. The proportion of hull, measured as percentage removal of the outer layer after 80 sec abrasion, SKCS kernel hardness, weight and diameter showed normal distributions and were 12.2-25.4%, 19.2-87.4, 18.6-44.3 mg and 1.3-2.6 mm, respectively. G, E and GxE were all significant sources of variation for hardness, weight and diameter with environment playing the greater role based on mean square values. Ten barley lines of varying kernel hardness (30.0-91.2) were selected to determine the association of kernel hardness with thousand kernel weight, test weight, density, vitreousness and kernel crease dimensions. Thousand kernel weight, test weight, density and crease dimensions showed no significant correlation with kernel hardness. Vitreousness alludes to the internal packing of kernel and is greatly influenced by the growing conditions. Dehulled barley grains were observed on a light box and vitreousness was visually assessed on a scale of 1-5 so as to give 1 to the opaque and 5 to the translucent kernels. Vitreousness determined by visual observation showed a positive relationship with kernel hardness. Brightness (L*) of kernel was also determined as an indicator of grain vitreousness, since vitreous kernels reflect less light giving lower L* values than opaque kernels. L* values varied from 61.9-65.9 and showed significant negative correlation (r = -0.824) with kernel hardness. Overall, these results suggest that barley kernel hardness is strongly affected by environment and associated with vitreousness. PARTICIPANTS: Steven E. Ullrich; Sindhu Nair TARGET AUDIENCES: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS: Nothing significant to report during this reporting period.
Impacts
There is growing interest in consuming barley because of numerous potential health benefits, including hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic and anticarcinogenic effects, as well as its easy availability and inexpensive price. The most diverse genetic background of barley among cereal grains also delivers a great potential for using barley in various food processing operations and products. While rigorous quality requirements of barley for malting and brewing have been established and used in breeding and grading malting barley, neither quality standard of barley for food uses is available, nor has the attempt been made to establish it. We have limited experience in systematically breeding, supplying and maintaining barley for food uses. Accordingly, we need to first set up guidelines for quality of barley-based or barley-incorporated food products and to identify raw material requirements of barley for making food products, along with development of methods to screen or grade barley for end-use quality. This study provides a selection guideline that has great potential impact on the food use of barley by identifying the role of grain hardness on processing and product quality as well as development of food barley varieties possessing desirable grain hardness. The major economic impact this study contributes will result from the increased use of barley for food products and the expanded export of barley to overseas food markets. Using the guidelines for selecting food barley which will be established from this and future studies, the barley industry will be able to provide high quality barley specifically suitable for food uses for domestic as well as international markets.
Publications
- Baik, B., S.E. Ullrich, and Z. Quinde-Axtell. 2008. Polyphenols, Polyphenol Oxidase and Discoloration of Barley-Based Food Products (chapter 27. p 388-414. In: C.A. Culver and R.E. Wrolstad, eds Color quality of fresh and processed foods. ACS Symposium Series 983. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.)
- Han, I., and B. Baik. 2008. Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of lentils (Lens culinaris), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum), Peas (Pisum sativum) and Soybean (Glycine max). International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 43:1971-1978.
- Ullrich, S.E., B. Baik, and Z. Quinde-Axtell. 2008. Barley for Food: Traits and Improvements. Proceedings of the 10th International Barley Genetics Symposium. 10th International Barley Genetics Symposium. 04/05-10/2008. Alexandria, Egypt.
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Progress 01/01/07 to 12/31/07
Outputs
Grains of 959 breeding lines of various classes contributed by ten major barley breeding programs in the USA were evaluated for kernel characteristics using a single kernel characterization system (SKCS). Average kernel weight and diameter of barley grain ranged from 24.9 to 53.7 mg and from 1.7 to 2.9 mm, respectively. Hulled barley lines exhibited wider variation in kernel weight and diameter than hulless lines. Spring and winter lines were similar in distribution of kernel diameter and average values. The proportion of hull, as determined by the abrasive removal rate, ranged from 10.2 to 20.8%. The proportion of hull was <15.5% in 99% of winter lines and in 80% of spring lines. Grain hardness ranged from 30 to 92 in hulled barley and from 42 to 91 in hulless barley. Eighty percent of winter and 30% of spring barley lines exhibited >67 in hardness. Average kernel hardness was 71 for winter types and 62 for spring types. Ten barley lines showing large variations in
grain hardness were selected to determine the role of grain hardness in food processing of barley. Protein and beta-glucan content of 10 barley lines was 9.4% - 13.8% and 3.2% - 5.7%, respectively. Both of these biochemical parameters failed to show any consistent trend in grain hardness. The pearling rate negatively correlated with SKCS grain hardness, suggesting that pearling rate decreases as grain hardness increases. Grain hardness showed a significant positive correlation with proportion of particles >106 micrometer, suggesting that particle size distribution is greatly affected by SKCS hardness. Water absorption of barley grains appeared to be independent of SKCS hardness. Kernel hardness, after 40 min of cooking, correlated significantly with water absorption of dehulled kernels after 8 hr soaking, while kernel hardness was not related to SKCS hardness. This suggests that cooked kernel hardness is influenced by water absorption, but is little affected by grain hardness.
Impacts
Large variation in hardness and other grain characteristics among barley classes and genotypes indicate the potential for identification of genes or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and of genetic markers for development of barley varieties possessing appropriate grain characteristics for food uses. Identification of grain hardness as a food use trait of barley and establishment of proper screening methods will also be beneficial for development of barley varieties suitable for processing and food uses.
Publications
- Han, I., B.G.Swanson, and B.Baik. 2007. Protein Digestibility of Selected Legumes Treated with Ultrasound and High Hydrostatic Pressure During Soaking. Cereal Chemistry. 84(5):518-521.
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Progress 01/01/06 to 12/31/06
Outputs
Functional properties of wheat flour protein suitable for making noodles may differ substantially from those for making bread. While full development of gluten occurs during bread dough mixing, there is limited gluten development in noodle dough. Our understanding of functional properties of protein required for making noodles and their evaluation are inadequate for effective screening of noodle wheat genotypes. To identify the protein quality profile suitable for making noodles, we determined protein quality of wheat flour, noodle dough and dough sheets using SDS sedimentation volume (SDS-SV), proportions of salt soluble (SSP) and residual protein (RP). SDS-SV of flour based on 10% protein content was greater than 54.0 mL in hard, but was lower than 33.7 mL in soft wheat flours. Three commercial noodle flours exhibited much higher SDS-SV than soft wheat, but lower than hard wheat varieties. SSP of flour ranged from 16.5 to 20.9% in hard and commercial noodle wheat
flours and from 22.1 to 30.7% in soft wheat flours. RP of flour was 27.9-36.8% in hard and noodle flours, and 16.9-26.1 in soft wheat flours. Much lower SSP and greater RP were observed in dough sheets than in wheat flour. The influence of flour protein content on SSP and RP of wheat flour, noodle dough and dough sheets were insignificant or inconsistent. SSP of dough sheets that passed through rolls seven times ranged from 8.6 to 10.9% in hard wheat, from 10.8 to 15.0% in soft wheat and from 8.9 to 12.0% in noodle flours, while RP ranged from 34.7 to 44.5% in hard wheat varieties and noodle flour and from 28.5 to 36.5% in soft wheat varieties. SDS SV, SSP and RP of wheat flour, noodle dough and noodle dough sheets effectively differentiate protein quality differences among hard and soft wheat varieties and commercial noodle flours without being significantly affected by flour protein content. Noodle dough mixing and sheeting processes result in decreases in SSP and increases in RP of
wheat flour. Protein quality of white salted noodle flours appears to be intermediate between hard and soft wheat varieties, as evidenced by SDS SV of flour and SSP of dough and dough sheets, or similar to that of hard wheat varieties, as evidenced by SSP and RP of wheat flour and RP of noodle dough and dough sheets.
Impacts
Elucidation of the protein quality profile of wheat suitable for noodles allows us to precisely and reliably screen wheat breeding lines and subsequently improve the development of noodle wheat varieties. This will eventually benefit wheat growers by expanding overseas wheat export in noodle wheat markets. The establishment of a protein quality profile for making noodles is also crucial for the development of DNA markers, which will provide an efficient, reliable and fast selection tool for noodle wheat varieties.
Publications
- Quinde-Axtell, Z., and Baik, B.-K. 2006. Phenolic compounds of barley grain and their implication in food products discoloration. J. Agri. Food Chem. 54:9978-9984
- Quinde-Axtell, Z., Powers, P., and Baik, B.-K. 2006. Retardation of discoloration in barley flour gel and dough. Cereal Chem. 83:385-390.
- Han, I., and Baik, B.-K. 2006. Oligosaccharides in legumes and reduction by soaking, cooking, ultrasound and high hydrostatic pressure. Cereal Chem. 83:428-433.
- Dalgetty, D. D., and Baik, B.-K. 2006. Fortification of bread with hulls and cotyledon fibers isolated from peas, lentils and chickpeas. Cereal Chem. 83:269-274.
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Progress 01/01/05 to 12/31/05
Outputs
This study was conducted to determine the germplasm variations in physical and chemical components of barley grains and their relationship to quality parameters of food products. Physical and chemical attributes of grains differed widely among 12 barley genotypes. Test weight of grains ranged from 54.3 to 60.8 lb/bu in hulless barley genotypes and from 47.3 to 50.7 lb/bu in hulled barley. Hulless waxy barley exhibited higher grain hardness (67.3-67.7 SKCS unit) than hulled and hulless barley with regular endosperm (52.1-65.0 SKCS unit). Waxy barley grains contained a higher amount of beta-glucan than barley with regular endosperm. Proanthocyanidin (PA)-free barley grains contained much less total polyphenol (TPP) and produced brighter tortillas and noodles prepared with 30% barley flour than PA-containing barley. Polyphenol (PPO) oxidase activity, however, was higher in PA-free than in PA-containing barley. Waxy barley grains absorbed water more water and more quickly
during soaking, were softer after cooking, and produced softer cooked noodles incorporated with 30% barley flour. TPP content of barley correlated negatively with brightness of tortillas and noodles. Both amylose and beta-glucan content of barley grains showed significant relationship with water absorption of grains and hardness of cooked noodles.
Impacts
This study has great potential impact on the utilization of barley in foods. The major economic impact this study contributes will result from the increased use of barley for food products and the expanded export of barley to overseas food markets. Using the guidelines for selecting food barley, the barley industry will be able to provide high quality barley specifically suitable for food uses to domestic as well as international markets. Consequently, food processors will be able to utilize an increased amount of barley in various food products with improved quality attributes.
Publications
- Cramer, A.-C. J., Mattinson, D. S., Fellman, J. K., and Baik, B.-K. 2005. Analysis of volatile compounds from various types of barley cultivars. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53:7526-7531.
- Quinde-Axtell, Z., Ullrich, S. E., and Baik, B.-K. 2005. Genotypic and environmental effects on color and discoloration potential of barley in food products. Cereal Chem. 82:711-716.
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Progress 01/01/04 to 12/31/04
Outputs
We defined the influences of compositional characteristics, especially, amylose content, protein content, beta-glucans content and proanthocyanidin content of barley on the quality attributes of barley-added food products, including water imbibition of grains, water absorption for making bread and noodles, breadcrumb moisture content, color of noodles and texture of cooked noodles. We explored effective ways of controlling discoloration of barley-based food products. The removal of the outer layer of grains, heat treatment, exclusion of oxygen, low storage temperature and the use of ascorbic acid and 4-hexylresorcinol improve color characteristics of food products of food products containing barley. We determined physical and chemical attributes of 13 barley genotypes and their relationships with quality parameters of abraded and cooked barley, and of bread and noodles incorporated with 30% barley flour. Waxy barley exhibited higher water imbibition of grains and
softer texture of cooked grains than barley of regular endosperm. Incorporation of barley flour into bread lowered Mixograph absorption by 6% with barley of regular endosperm and 2% with waxy barley. Loaf volume of bread baked from what and barley flour blends was much higher with barley of regular endosperm than with waxy barley. Bread incorporated with barley flour retained moisture better during storage than wheat flour bread and generally exhibited higher crumb moisture content at 7 days after baking. Noodles with proanthocyanidin-free barley showed whiter color of dough and noodles than those with proanthocyanidin-containing barley. Noodles with waxy barley flour exhibited the softest texture of cooked noodles. Beta-glucans content of barley related positively with water uptake of grains and crumb moisture content of bread, and negatively with hardness of cooked noodles. Abrasion, heat treatment use of chemical additives and adjustment of storage condition were examined for the
reduction of dark color development in barley gel and dough. The removal of the outer layers of grains by abrasion increased the L* (brightness) of barley flour dough by 0.1-7.1. Steam heating of abraded grains also increased the L* of barley flour gels by 1.8-3.4. Ascorbic acid at 1500 ppm was most effective for retarding discoloration of barley flour dough, followed by 50 ppm of 4-hexylresorcinol, which is an enzyme competitive inhibitor. The discoloration of barley flour dough was also effectively reduced by storing the dough at 4 degrees C under nitrogen gas to exclude oxygen or under anaerobic conditions at 20 degrees C.
Impacts
There is a growing interest in consuming barley because of numerous potential health benefits. However, no quality standard of barley for food uses is available, nor has the attempt been made to establish one. We have limited experience in systematically breeding, supplying and maintaining barley for food uses. The information obtained from this study will be useful for identifying raw materials suitable for making barley food products as well as provide barley breeders with guidelines for the development of varieties with superior food product quality.
Publications
- Baik, B.-K., Powers, J., and Nguyen, L.T. 2004. 2004. Extrusion of Regular and Waxy Barley Flours for Production of Expanded Cereals. Cereal Chem. 8:94-99.
- Quinde, Z., Ullrich, S.E. and Baik, B.-K. 2004. Genotypic variation in color and discoloration potential of barley-based food products. Cereal Chem 81:752-758.
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Progress 01/01/03 to 12/31/03
Outputs
We investigated the relationship between the protein content and quality of wheat flours and characteristics of noodle dough and instant noodles. Protein content of wheat flours exhibited negative relationships with the optimum water absorption of noodle dough and lightness (L*) of the instant noodle dough sheet. Protein quality, as determined by SDS sedimentation volume and proportion of alcohol and salt soluble protein of flour, also influenced optimum water absorption and yellow-blueness (b*) of the noodle dough sheet. Wheat flours with high protein content (>13.6%) produced instant noodles with lower fat absorption, higher L*, lower b*, and firmer and more elastic texture than wheat flours with low protein content (<12.2%). L* of instant noodles positively correlated with SDS sedimentation volume and negatively correlated with proportion of alcohol and salt soluble protein of flour. SDS sedimentation volume and proportion of salt soluble protein of flours also
exhibited a significant relationship with free lipid content of instant noodles (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively). Protein quality parameters of wheat flour, as well as protein content, showed significant relationship with texture properties of cooked instant noodles. The effect of amylose content of starch on processing and textural properties of instant noodles was determined using waxy, partial waxy and regular wheat flours and reconstituted flours with starches of various amylose content (3.0-6.5). Optimum water absorption of instant noodle dough increased with the decrease of amylose content. Instant noodles prepared from waxy and reconstituted wheat flours with <2.4% amylose content exhibited thicker strands and higher free lipids content than wheat flours with >7.1% amylose content. Instant noodles of 2.4% amylose content of starch exhibited numerous bubbles on the surface and stuck together during frying. Lightness of instant noodles increased from 77.3 to 81.4 with the
increase of amylose content of starch in reconstituted flours. Cooking time of instant noodles was 4.08.0 min in wheat flours and 6.0-2.0 min in reconstituted flours, and constantly increased with the increase in amylose content of starch. Hardness of cooked instant noodles positively correlated with amylose content of starch. Reconstituted flours with <2.4% of amylose content of starch were higher in cohesiveness than those of wheat flours of wild type and partial waxy starches and reconstituted flours with <7.1% amylose content. Instant fried noodles prepared from double null partial waxy wheat flour exhibited shorter cooking time, softer texture and higher fat absorption by 1.2%, but similar color and appearance, compared to noodles prepared from wheat flour of wild type starch.
Impacts
Well-documented results on the effects of protein content and quality of wheat on processing characteristics and quality parameters of instant fried noodles will be greatly helpful for developing wheat varieties with appropriate protein content and quality for making noodles and eventually benefit wheat growers by expanding overseas wheat export in noodle wheat markets. The immediate payback will come from our ability to select and segregate high quality wheat for making noodles. The long-term benefits will be the ability to assist breeders in screening wheat lines with suitable protein quality for making noodles. Defining the effects of amylose content on starch properties is important for developing wheat varieties suitable for making instant fried noodles, and will eventually benefit wheat growers by expanding wheat export and recapturing noodle wheat markets in Japan and Korea. The proposed study will also allow us to determine the suitability of using waxy and
partial-waxy wheat for production of high quality instant noodles.
Publications
- Baik, B.-K., and Lee, M.-R. 2003. Effects of starch amylose content of wheat on textural properties of white salted noodles. Cereal Chem. 80:304-309.
- Park, C. S., Hong, B. H., and Baik, B.-K. 2003. Protein quality of wheat required for making white salted noodles and its influences on processing and texture of noodles. Cereal Chem. 80:297-303.
- Baik, B.-K., Park, C. S., Paszczynska, B., and Konzak, C. F. 2003. Characteristics of noodles and bread prepared from double null partial waxy wheat. Cereal Chem. 80:627-633.
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Progress 01/01/02 to 12/31/02
Outputs
We have conducted three projects this year, which aimed to improve end-use quality of wheat, especially for making white salted noodles and bread. 1)Protein quality of wheat desirable for making white salted noodles and its influences on processing and texture of noodles. Protein characteristics of wheat flours from various wheat classes, and of commercial flours for making noodles, were evaluated to determine the effects of protein content and quality on processing and textural properties of white salted noodles, as well as to identify protein quality required for making white salted noodles. SDS sedimentation volume based on constant protein weight, mixograph mixing time and proportions of salt and alcohol soluble protein of commercial flours for making noodles were more comparable to those of hard wheat flours than those of soft wheat flours. In addition to protein content, quality parameters of flour protein, including SDS sedimentation volume with constant
protein weight, mixograph mixing time, proportion of salt soluble protein and score of HMW-GS have significant relationships with processing and textural properties of white salted noodles. 2) Cooking time of white salted noodles and its relationship with protein and amylose contents of wheat. Optimum cooking time of white salted noodles determined by sensory panel test ranged from 13.6 to 16.2 min in wheat of wild type in granule bound starch synthase (GBSS), from 16 to 17.4 min in B null in GBSS, from 11.4 to 12.4 min in commercial noodle flours, from 8.0 to 8.2 min in waxy wheat and was 14.2 min in BD double null. Amylose content positively correlated with optimum cooking time of white salted noodles as determined by sensory panel test. As protein content increased, optimum cooking time of noodles also increased in noodles from wheat flours with similar amylose content. Cooking time of noodles can be estimated objectively by monitoring the changes in amylograph onset temperature of
noodles during cooking. 3) Characteristics of noodles and bread prepared from double null partial waxy wheat. Double null partial waxy wheat flours were used for preparation of white salted noodles and pan bread. Double null partial waxy wheat flours, despite their higher protein content, produced softer, more cohesive and less adhesive noodles than soft white wheat flours. With incorporation of partial waxy prime starches, noodles produced from reconstituted soft white winter wheat flours became softer, less adhesive and more cohesive, indicating that partial waxy starches of low amylose content are responsible for the improvement of cooked noodle texture. Partial waxy wheat flours with more than 15.1% protein produced bread of larger loaf volume and softer crumb of bread even after storage than the hard red spring wheat flour of 15.3% protein. Bread baked from double null partial waxy wheat flours exhibited a slower firming rate during storage than bread baked from HRS wheat
flour.
Impacts
1) Well-documented results on the effects of protein content and quality of wheat on processing characteristics and quality parameters of Asian noodles will be greatly helpful for developing wheat varieties with appropriate protein content and quality for making noodles and eventually benefit wheat growers by expanding overseas wheat export in noodle wheat markets. The immediate payback will come from our ability to select and segregate high quality wheat for making noodles. The long-term benefits will be the ability to assist breeders in screening wheat lines with suitable protein quality for making noodles. 2) Defining the effects of amylose content on starch properties is important for developing wheat varieties suitable for making white salted and instant fried noodles, and will eventually benefit wheat growers by expanding wheat export and recapturing noodle wheat markets in Japan and Korea. The proposed study will also allow us to determine the suitability of
using waxy and partial-waxy wheat for production of high quality white salted and instant noodles. 3) Our research on influence of starch amylose content on staling of bread during storage indicates that bread with extended shelf-life can be produced from wheat of reduced starch amylose content.
Publications
- No publications reported this period
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Progress 01/01/01 to 12/31/01
Outputs
1) Preparation of chickpea curd by heat-induced gelatin. The effect of compressing time, pH, and protein concentration of the texture of chickpea curds prepared by heat-induced gelatin was assessed. The possible gelatin mechanism was studied by differential scanning calorimetry, surface hydrophobicity and viscometric analysis. Texture analysis showed that chickpea curd could be produced by steam cooking the protein fraction. DSC results indicated a decrease in the denaturation enthalpies from both legumin and vacilin as pH decreased from 6.5 to 6.0. The viscosity of the protein fraction sharply increased at pH 5.2 producing an extremely hard curd. A mechanism for curd formation is proposed. 2) Isolation and Characterization of Dietary Fiber from Pea, Chickpea and Lentil Flour. Seeds of pea, chickpea and lentil were roller milled into flour and separated into prime starch, tailings and water solubles using a wet fractionation method. Insoluble dietary fiber was
isolated from tailings by wet screening through a sieve with openings of 53 mm. Soluble dietary fiber was isolated from the water-soluble fraction following precipitation of soluble protein. Recoveries were 57.53-69.04% for insoluble fiber and 83.31-89.60% for soluble fiber. Insoluble fiber concentrates exhibited water-holding capacities from 4-5 ml/g and swelling powers from 7-9 g/g. Apparent viscosities of 28.1-36.1 cps were noted from 2% soluble fiber solutions. Glucose represented 66-75% of the sugar in hull fiber. Xylose was also identified as a common sugar in legume fibers and in combination with arabinose amongst insoluble fibers. Galactose and cellobiose both made up significant portions of the soluble fibers. 3) Discoloration Potential of various types of barley in food products. Barley is strongly favored for increased incorporation into the human diet since it is naturally healthy, readily available and inexpensive. Dark discoloration of barley-based food products,
however, has hampered increased utilization of barley in food formulations and decreased consumer acceptability. The objectives of this research were to determine discoloration potentials of barley from different classes and varieties when used in food products. Barley grains of various classes, including hulled and hull-less, waxy and non-waxy, proanthocyanidin-containing and proanthocyanidin-free, were abraded, milled into flour, and analyzed for composition and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity. Lightness (L* value) of abraded grains, flour, cooked grains, 10% flour gels, and dough sheets (64% water) were determined. Large variations in L* values of abraded grains, cooked grains, gels, and dough sheets were observed among different classes and among varieties within classes. L* values of gels and dough sheets were generally higher in hulled than in hull-less barley, and higher in proanthocyanidin-free than in proanthocyanidin-containing barley. PPO activity of grain correlated
positively with protein content (P<0.01) and negatively with L* values of abraded grains (P<0.05) and dough sheets (P<0.01).
Impacts
Our research on the functional properties of legume proteins and on the effect of other molecules on the functional properties of legume proteins will provide information on possible ways to enhance the functional properties of legume proteins through molecular interactions. It is expected that the results from this research could greatly increase the possibility of producing bean curd from legumes and, therefore, expand the uses of legumes as well as increase their value. The results obtained from the research project dealing with dietary fiber of legumes will not only help us to efficiently produce legume cotyledon fibers from the by-products (tailings starch) of the legume fractionation process, but will also increase the yield of isolated starch. Information regarding composition, functional properties and use of legume dietary fibers will further increase the use of dietary fibers obtained from peas, chickpeas and lentils. Results from the barely discoloration
project will: 1) Clarify differences in coloration and discoloration of barley-based food products among different types and genotypes evaluated; 2) Provide significance of polyphenolic compounds and PPO activities on discoloration of barley-based products; and 3) Help food industries utilizing barley to select the best barley type in terms of color and discoloration potential.
Publications
- Cai, R. and Baik, B.-K. 2001. The effect of soy oil and lecithin on the texture of curds prepared from chickpeas, lentils and smooth peas. IFT 2001 Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.
- Cai, R., and Baik, B.-K. 2001. Preparation of chickpea curd by heat-induced gelation. J. Food Sci. 66:1.294-1300.
- Cai, R., and Baik, B.-K. 2001. Textural property of six legume curds in relation to their protein constituents. IFT 2001 Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.
- Cai, R., Klamczynska, B., and Baik, B.-K. 2001. Preparation of bean curds from protein fractions of six legumes. J. Agri. & Food Chem. 49:3068-3073.
- Klamczynska, B., Czuchajowska, Z., and Baik, B.-K. 2001. Composition, soaking and cooking properties, and thermal characteristics of starch of chickpeas, wrinkled peas and smooth peas. Int. J. of Food Sci. & Tech. 36:563-572.
- Klamczynska, B., Czuchajowska, Z., and Baik, B.-K. 2001. Smooth peas, wrinkled peas and garbanzo beans in production of sweetened paste. Food Sci. & Tech. Int. 7:73-81.
- Quinde, Z., and Baik, B.-K. 2001. Discoloration Potential of various types of barley in food products. AACC 2001 Annual Meeting, Charlotte, NC.
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Progress 01/01/00 to 12/31/00
Outputs
1) The effects of amylose content on thermal properties of starches, dough rheology and bread staling were investigated using starch blends of two waxy wheat lines and one non-waxy wheat. As the amylose content of starch blends decreased from 24 to 0%, the gelatinization enthalpy of starch blends increased from 10.5 to 15.3 J/g, retrogradation enthalpy of starch blends after 96 hr storage at 4 degrees C decreased from 2.2 to 0 J/g, the peak viscosity temperature of starch blends decreased from 95 degrees C to 67 degrees C, and peak viscosity increased from 225 to over 1600 B.U. Mixograph water absorption of starch and gluten blends increased as the proportion of amylose content increased, while there were no changes in mixing time. Lower rheofermentometer dough height, higher gas production and a lower gas retention coefficient were observed in starch and gluten blends with 12 or 18% amylose content. While the volume of bread baked from starch and gluten blends
increased, bread exhibited a more porous crumb structure as amylose content in bread decreased. Starch and gluten blends with malt resulted in a higher bread volume and a more porous crumb structure compared to bread made from starch and gluten blends without malt. Bread from starch and gluten blends with amylose content between 19.2 and 21.6% exhibited similar crumb structure to that of bread with non-waxy wheat starch (24% amylose content). Crumb moisture content was similar at 5 hr after baking, but higher in bread with waxy wheat than in bread without waxy wheat starch after 7 days storage at 4 degrees C. Bread with waxy wheat starch exhibited lower crumb hardness value at 5 hr after baking compared to bread without waxy wheat starch. After 7 days storage at 4 degrees C, bread with amylose content between 19.2 and 21.6% exhibited lower crumb hardness value than bread without waxy wheat starch, while bread with amylose content of 12 or 18% of amylose content showed no difference.
2) Chickpeas, lentils, smooth peas, mung beans and faba beans were milled into flours and fractionated to protein and starch fractions. Composition of the seeds, cotyledons and flours were compared for each legume and the weight and protein recovery of each fraction analyzed. Bean curds were prepared from the protein fractions through heat denaturation of protein milk, followed by coagulation with calcium sulfate or magnesium sulfate. The effect of chickpea protein concentration and coagulant dosage on the texture of bean curds was evaluated using a texture analyzer. Textural analysis indicated that the curd prepared at 2.3-3.0% protein concentration and 1.5% CaSO4 dosage had better yield and better texture than curds prepared under other conditions. Bean curds prepared from chickpeas and faba beans exhibited the second highest springiness and cohesiveness after those from soybeans. Curds of mung beans and smooth peas, on the other hand, had the highest yield and the highest moisture
content. The protein yield of the first and the second soluble extracts used for curd preparation accounted for approximately 90% of the total protein of the seeds.
Impacts
Information regarding the effects of amylose content on the functional properties of wheat starch and the bread staling provides wheat breeders with a guideline for screening wheat lines suitable for making high quality bread with extended shelf life. Preparation methods and optimized processing conditions for production of marketable bean curds from peas, chickpeas and lentils will be valuable information for the food industry and the marketing of legumes, and expand utilization of legumes.
Publications
- Lee, M. R., and Baik, B.-K. 2000. Changes in pasting properties of starches and textural properties of udon noodles with varying amylose content. 85th Annual meeting of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, Kansas City, MO, November, 2000. Abstract.
- Lee, M. R., Paszczynska, B., and Baik, B.-K. 2000. Influences of amylose content on thermal properties of starches, dough rheology and bread staling. 85th Annual meeting of the American Association of Cereal Chemists, Kansas City, MO, November, 2000. Abstract.
- Lee, M.-R. 2000. The influence of waxy wheat starch on bread staling and textural properties of white salted noodles. M.S. Thesis. Washington State University.
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Progress 01/01/99 to 12/31/99
Outputs
1) Near Infra-red Transmission Analyzer for segregation of wheat based on protein content. Hard white spring wheat cv. IDO377S was utilized to: a) set up guidelines for segregation of wheat based on protein content; b) test the reliability of calibrations for a near infra-red transmission (NIT) analyzer for estimation of protein and moisture content of wheat; and c) determine the influence of dockage on accuracy of estimated protein and moisture content of wheat. Preliminary wheat samples were collected from seven representative locations before harvest to determine distribution of protein content and to assign to the storage bins a specific range of protein content. Protein content of preharvest samples ranged from 11.0% to 16.3%. Based on protein content of preharvest samples, three storage bins were assigned to <13.8%, 13.8% to 14.8% and >14.8%, respectively. During the harvest, wheat from 183 truck loads was segregated into each bin based on protein content
estimated using NIT. Protein and moisture content of the 183 uncleaned samples ranged from 12.5% to 16.5% and from 7.4% to 9.7%, respectively, with 0.31 of standard error of prediction for both protein and moisture content compared to chemical analysis; standard error of prediction for cleaned samples was 0.19 for moisture content and 0.24 for protein content. 2) Differences in Characteristics of Starches Isolated from Non-waxy, Partial Waxy and Waxy Wheat. Prime starches isolated from non-waxy, partial waxy with one or two null waxy alleles, and waxy wheat genotypes were analyzed for their compositions, physical characteristics, thermal behavior and retrogradation properties. Amylose content of prime starches ranged from 0.45 to 2.28% in waxy, 17.2 to 24.6% in partial waxy and 24.4 to 25.6% in non-waxy wheat. Pasting properties of starches were determined using a viscoamylograph and showed large differences between wheat genotypes. Peak temperatures of waxy starches were lower than
71 C, while those of partial waxy and non-waxy starches were higher than 92 C. Peak viscosity of prime starches was below 440 BU in non-waxy, ranged from 660 to 1040 BU in partial waxy and were over 1520 BU in waxy starches. Waxy starches formed the weakest gels, with lower than 0.7 N firmness, while firmness of gels prepared from partial waxy starches ranged from 2.0 to 6.6 N. Gels prepared from non-waxy starches had higher than 4.7 N firmness. Firmness of gels increased during 96 hr of storage by less than 0.3 N in waxy starches, 1.3 to 2.5 N in partial waxy and more than 1.9 N in non-waxy starches. Starches isolated from waxy, partial waxy and non-waxy wheat exhibit large differences in amylose and phosphorus content, pasting properties, gel hardness, and gelatinization and retrogradation characteristics. Crystallinity of starch is highest in waxy and AB null, less in BD and B null, and least in non-waxy wheat. Variation in functional properties of starches with similar amylose
content could be due to differences in crystallinity and ratio between A and B-type starch granules.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Baik, B.K., Czuchajowska, Z., and Paszczynska, B. 1999. Differences in Characteristics of Starches Isolated from Non-waxy, Partial Waxy and Waxy Wheat. Abstract for American Association of Cereal Chemists Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA.
- Koh, H.Y., Czuchajowska, Z., and Baik, B.K. 1999. Application of Near Infra-red Transmission Analyzer for Segregation of Wheat Based on Protein Content. Abstract for American Association of Cereal Chemists Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA.
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Progress 01/01/98 to 12/31/98
Outputs
Starch is the major component of the wheat kernel, comprising about 80% in soft wheat flour. Starch gelatinization and retrogradation are two important starch functional properties. Starch functional properties may vary due to the ratio of amylose to amylopectin, starch crystallinity, granule size distribution and the amount of minor constituents like phosphorus, lipids, proteins and enzymes. Both dough rheology and end use of flour are greatly affected by the starch functional properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of starch crystallinity and phosphorus content on gelatinization and retrogradation of soft wheat starches. Starch crystallinity and phosphorus were studied using wide angle X-ray powder diffraction, cross polarization/magic angle spinning (CP/MAS) 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, 31P NMR spectroscopy, Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Two starches differing
significantly in peak viscosity, cv. Stephens (283 BU) vs. cv. Crew (560 BU), were comparable in amylose content and starch crystallinity, while differing significantly in phospholipids content. Starch of lower peak viscosity had a higher phospholipids content and showed a slower rate of retrogradation. Starch from cv. Stephens (0.098% phosphorus) had an enthalpy value of retrograded starch of 2.2 J/g after 14 days of storage, while starch from cv. Crew, (0.062% phosphorous), had an enthalpy value as high as 4.4 J/g. Defatting with a hot n-propanol:water (3:1) mixture caused substantial changes in peak viscosity. Peak viscosity for starch from cv. Crew decreased by 75 RVU due to defatting, while starch from cv. Stephens decreased by as much as 125 RVU. After defatting with the hot n-propanol water mixture, the rate and extent of starch retrogradation were comparable between the prime starches, which differed significantly in peak viscosity.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Lin, P.-Y. and Czuchajowska, Z. 1998. Role of phosphorus in viscosity, gelatinization, and retrogradation of starch. Cereal Chem. 75(5):705.
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Progress 01/01/97 to 12/31/97
Outputs
The level of starch damage is an important quality index for the evaluation of both hard wheat and soft wheat flours. The amount of damage varies with the severity of the milling process and the hardness of the wheat kernel. Both end-use and rheological properties of a flour dough are greatly influenced by the level of starch damage in the flour. The effect of broad growing conditions in the Pacific Northwest and varietal differences in starch damage (191 samples) of soft white winter (SWW) and club wheat flours were investigated. The starch damage in club wheat flours was more stable over crop years than in SWW wheat flours. For individual cultivars, averaged over crop years and locations, the SWW cv. Madsen had the highest percentage of starch damage at 4.77%, while Lewjain and Dusty had the lowest percentage of starch damage among SWW wheats, at 3.19% and 2.76%, respectively. Among club wheats, Tres showed the highest percentage of starch damage at 4.03%, and Moro
the lowest with 3.40%. The strong correlation between starch damage values measured enzymatically by the Megazyme method and the electric current reading (Ec) of the Chopin Rapid Flour Tester (RFT) for 191 Buhler milled soft wheat flours formed the basis for a calibration curve and respective equation. The equation could be used to estimate starch damage in flours milled commercially.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- LIN, P.-Y., CUZHAJOWSKA Z. 1996. Starch damage in soft wheats of the Pacific Northwest. Cereal Chem. 73(5):551.
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Progress 01/01/96 to 12/30/96
Outputs
Seven SWW and four club wheat cultivars were used in this study. In part one of this study both classes of wheats were grown under the same soil and climatic conditions, in Walla Walla, WA. In part two, both classes of wheat were grown in seven locations covering broad soil and climatic conditions. The SWW and club wheats grown under the same conditions showed similar protein content (11.70 and 11.65%, respectively) but distinctly different values of area of HMW-GS (0.9-1.9 for SWW, and 0.7-1.3 for club wheat, excluding Hyak). The quality score of HMW-GS multiplied by area showed stronger correlation with dough rheology (alveograph W: r= 0.905; mixograph mixing time r = 0.743) and SDS sedimentation volume (r = 0.883) than for each of these parameters separately. The increase in protein content of SWW, (from 8.5 to 12.5%) and of club wheats (from 7.5 to 11%) resulting from growing conditions accompanies the increase of total area of HMW-GS, from 0.85 to 1.3 and from
0.7 to 0.95, respectively. However, that increase better matched the increase in protein content of SWW wheats (r = 0.662) than club wheats (r = 0.352). If the increase in protein content is substantial for the cultivars with high quality score HMW-GS, it might cause an increase of gluten strength as measured by dough rheology and sedimentation test. The club wheats (not Hyak), having a generally low quality score of HMW-GS, preserve unique properties of weak gluten, even with the increase of protein content.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- CZUCHAJOWSKA, Z., LIN, P.-Y. AND SMOLINSKI, S. 1996. Role in dough rheology of high molecular weight glutenin subunits of soft white winter and club wheats. Cereal Chem. 73(3):338-345.
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Progress 01/01/95 to 12/30/95
Outputs
Milling performance and rheological properties of two hundred soft white wheats were investigated. The samples included widely differing seven SWW and four club wheat varieties harvested in 1988, 1990, and 1993 crop years from eight locations in the PNW. Samples were milled on a Buhler experimental mill. Club wheats were higher than SWW (on the average) in break flour yield (0.3%), total flour yield (1.9%), and milling score (2.8). Starch damage was determined by the Chopin Rapid F. T. and by an enzymatic assay (Megazyme). Mixograph water absorption and peak times were higher (by 1.9% and 27 sec, respectively) in SWW than in club wheats. Protein content, in addition to variety and location, influenced dough development and mixogram shape. Generally, when protein content was below 10%, no clearcut peak was observed in the mixogram. Milling performance and rheological properties were closely related to end-product quality. Stronger gluten SWW (unlike club) wheats
responded to increases in water absorption by changes in patterns of dough development.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- LIN, P.-Y., Z. CZUCHAJOWSKA and Y. POMERANZ. 1994. Uniqueness of club wheats vs. soft white wheats. Cereal Foods World 39:643.
- LIN, P.-Y., Z. CZUCHAJOWSKA and Y. POMERANZ. 1995. Milling and dough rheologyof PNW club and SWW wheats. Cereal Foods World 40:677.
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Progress 01/01/94 to 12/30/94
Outputs
Common cultivars of SWW (Hill-81, Nugaines, Lewjain, Daws, Stephens, Dusty, and Madsen) and club wheats (Mori, Tres, Crew, and Hyak), planted for three years at 8 locations in the PNW area which covered a wide range of growing conditions (rainfall below 10 and above 14 inches) were evaluated by several tests. Growing conditions (locations) had large effects on hardness and protein content of varieties from both classes (differences in score of 20 in NIRS hardness and 6% in protein). Mean hardness and protein showed larger differences within each class among three years than between two classes in each year. Protein in SWW averaged 13.2 (1988), 11.7 (1990), and 12.4% (1993) and was matched in club wheats by 13.3, 11.2, and 12.6%, respectively. Parameters of protein quality tests, however, in both classes differed widely and were 66.8 vs. 44.2 for SDS, 0.568 vs. 0.625 for urea dispersibility, and 112 vs. 89 for alveograph W for SWW and club wheats, respectively.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- NO PUBLICATIONS REPORTED THIS PERIOD.
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