Progress 09/01/23 to 08/31/24
Outputs
Target Audience:The target audience includes the scientific community that focus on forage crops, and environmental factors that affect agriculture. We have targeted our work on alfalfa pests and beneficial insects toward producers, extension agents, and crop advisors. Changes/Problems:Ramirez changed institutions from Utah State University to New Mexico State University during the 2023 field season. This disrupted some of the initial planned experiments for the first two objectives. Moreover, the transition reorganized the leadership of the project however, during the start of 2024 the adjustments have been addressed and experiments have been initiated. In 2024, we switched from using alfalfa weevil larvae which were less abundant to using Spodoptera exigua caterpillars, also found feeding on alfalfa, as a model larva. In 2025, we plan to focus on alfalfa weevil larvae within manipulative cage studies. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project provided support for two graduate students at New Mexico State University to work with Dr. Ricardo Ramirez, Luis Ochoa-Cadena, PhD student in Plant and Environmental Sciences and Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Weed Science, and Evangelina Carabotta, aMS Student in Agricultural Biology in Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Weed Science. Several undergraduate technicians were trained by the graduate students in arthropod and sampling techniques, identification, and data entry. Ochoa and Carabotta gained valuable training and professional development opportunities through coursework (Statistics and Sustainable Production Systems) and theimplementation of project objectives. Ochoa and Carabotta are developing skills in experimental design and statistical analysis for each of their respective components of the project. Ochoa presented his findings at the National Entomological Society of America conference November 2023 and both graduate students will be presenting their findings at the National Entomological Society conference November 2024. In addition to this, both graduate students presented their retrospective project findings at the Southwest Branch Entomological Society of America conference (April 2024) and the New Mexico State University field day at Leyendecker Research Station, May 2024. New Mexico State University will be hosting a field day at the Artesia Science Center in September 2024, where both students will be presenting their findings from the Eddy County sampling that took place throughout the year. This project provided partial support for one graduate student at Utah State University with Dr. Scott Bernhardt. Rose Sepesy is a Ph.D. candidate at Utah State University currently studying alfalfa weevil and lygus spp. and the potential for insecticide resistance development in alfalfa fields. Several undergraduate technicians work under the direction of Sepesy and have received valuable training. Sepesy is finishing her Ph.D and is expected to graduate in 2025. She has several manuscripts in production and will be submitted in the next year. In Arizona, the PI worked extensively to train individuals working on this research in the following ways: Proper Sampling Techniques: For raw data collection, the correct way of sampling using a sweep net is crucial. Also, the stem collection method and sampling using a suction vacuum are needed in some experiments. All the people associated with data collection responsibility have been trained properly to obtain quality raw data. Knowledge regarding Insecticide handling and Boom-sprayer: Team members have gone through a step-by-step process to learn the usage and precaution guidelines for the insecticides and the mechanism of the sprayer used for different treatments. Counting and Sorting Insects: It is another essential part of data collection. People gathered enough experience to perform this duty after the trial samplings. Performing Statistical Analyses: We have experienced people who have previously worked on different statistical software for data analyses. Newer members of our team are being trained to do statistical analysis correctly. Exposure to Outreach Experiences: The people associated with the project always get a chance to improve their communication skills by providing talks and presentations in extension events and workshops, discussing with the stakeholders, and looking for potential collaborators. Collaboration and Writing Grants: Team members gather experience to communicate with potential collaborators to develop interdisciplinary research ideas on alfalfa. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?To deliver project findings, graduate students at NMSU presented work at several conferences. The following presentations were made by Ramirez and NMSU graduate students: Ochoa-Cadena, L., R.A. Ramirez. 2023. Investigating the compatibility of insecticide applications with natural enemies for the suppression of alfalfa pests. National Entomological Society of America Conference. Nov. 5-8. National Harbor, MD (poster) Carabotta, E., M. Christman, R.A. Ramirez. 2024. Relationships between western landscapes and environmental factors on ladybeetle (Coccinellidae) composition in alfalfa. Southwestern Branch Entomological Society of America Conference. Apr. 21-24. Albuquerque, NM (poster) Ochoa-Cadena, L., R.A. Ramirez. 2024. Effects of insecticide applications on natural enemy communities, phenology, and their ability for pest suppression in alfalfa. Southwestern Branch Entomological Society of America Conference. Apr. 21-24. Albuquerque, NM (poster) Carabotta, E., M. Christman, R.A. Ramirez. 2024. Relationships between western landscapes and environmental factors on ladybeetle (Coccinellidae) composition in alfalfa. New Mexico State University Leyendecker Plant Science Center Field Day. May 22. Las Cruces, NM (poster) Ochoa-Cadena, L., R.A. Ramirez. 2024. Effects of insecticide applications on natural enemy communities, phenology, and their ability for pest suppression in alfalfa. New Mexico State University Leyendecker Plant Science Center Field Day. May 22. Las Cruces, NM (poster) To deliver project findings in AZ, Field Crops IPM personnel shared important information and research findings on the natural enemies of alfalfa at different extension events, such as the Field Crops Clinic, Alfalfa and Forage Workshop, New Technologies in Agriculture, and Alfalfa Tent Talk in 2024. They also distributed handouts to the stakeholders to educate them about the essential identification techniques. In the future, they will have more detailed results on the effect of different insecticides on natural enemies that they plan to share with growers, PCAs, and other industry personnel. The PI also plans to arrange several extension events and workshops in 2025 and share their findings through posters, factsheets, and extension publications. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?Ramirez and graduate students at NMSU plan to continue their progress on understanding insecticide susceptibilities in both alfalfa natural enemies and pest insects in objective 1. They will also further develop the economic threshold model specific to beneficial/pest insects to alfalfa. They will start to measure insecticide toxicity endpoints for natural enemies this fall. In Spring 2025, NMSU researchers will continue to survey natural enemies in alfalfa fields in response to insecticide applications and executing a field cage (1m × 1m × 1m, fines mesh) experiment evaluating natural enemy community impacts on alfalfa weevil and aphid suppression in their different life stages. They will manipulate predator diversity (the four most abundant species) accordingly to evaluate the impact on weevils and aphids. They are also planning to evaluate the relationship between western landscapes and environmental factors (e.g., air temperature, rainfall, relative humidity) affecting natural communities in alfalfa across Dona Ana, Valencia, and Eddy County. They plan to identify and monitor fields with different landscapes and surroundings (Table 1). These data will provide vital information on the landscape-insect population relationship. In 2025, data collected from survey sites will be used to estimate economic threshold models. Economic threshold models will be finalized and based on Utah enterprise budget information. It is anticipated that economic results will be published via Extension and academic journals with initial drafts being submitted during 2025. In Arizona, alongside the efficacy trials next spring, they will run a second-year field cage (1m X 1m X 1m, fine mesh) experiment to evaluate enemy community impacts on alfalfa weevil and aphid suppression in their different life stages. Considering the effect of insecticides on natural enemy communities, they will manipulate predator diversity (the three most abundant species) accordingly to evaluate the impact on weevils and aphids. They will also evaluate the relationship between western landscapes and environmental factors (e.g., air temperature, rainfall, relative humidity) affecting natural communities in alfalfa in Maricopa County. The researchers plan to identify and monitor fields (including commercial fields in Maricopa and Pinal County) with different landscapes and surroundings. It might provide some vital information on the landscape-insect population relationship.
Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals?
In 2023-24, the PI and Co-PI's had 2 organizational meetings to discuss updates and research objectives, accomplishments and troubleshoot each objective. Substantial progress has been made with the objectives specific to work being conducted by the PIs at New Mexico State University and University of Arizona. Under the direction of Dr. Ricardo Ramirez, 5 fields were Cache County, Utah were biweekly sampled by a Ph.D. student in 2024 for target predators and pests stated by the grant. Samples were collected using sweep sampling. The samples are being shipped from Utah State University to New Mexico State University for processing. Abundance and richness comparison will be conducted from these fields and added to the overall field abundance analysis. A PhD student selected for this study, Luis Ochoa-Cadena, along with the PI, Dr. Ricardo Ramirez, selected 24 fields in New Mexico within 3 separate counties for biweekly sampling of target predators and pests stated by the grant. A MS student, Evangelina Carabotta, was added to the project to help with sample collection and analysis. Ochoa created field transects and points to ensure acomplete sampling of each field throughout the season. Samples were collected using sweep and vacuum sampling. Processing of the samples began in May 2024, and sample analysis started July 2024. Abundance and richness comparisonsare currently being investigated. Natural enemy abundance analysis in response to alfalfa insecticide applications (Sub-objective 1) is in progress. Broad-spectrum and target-specific active ingredientsand other materials have been obtained to assess insecticide toxicity endpoints for natural enemies (Sub-objective 2). Moreover, Ochoa conducted a field cage experiment using 32 Lumite cages (1m × 1m × 1m) arranged in a 4×8 grid in an alfalfa field at the Leyendecker Research Station, New Mexico State University to evaluate natural enemy community impacts on Spodoptera exigua suppression as a model (Sub-objective 3). Data processing and analysis are in progress. A Ph.D. student, Rose Sepesy, under the direction of Dr. Scott Bernhardt is currently analyzing genetic sequence in alfalfa weevil and lygus spp. specific to regions that are potentially associated with pyrethroid insecticide resistance. Insect specimens were collected from several fields that have a history of extensive insecticide use and suspected reduced insecticide susceptibility and fields where little history of insecticide use has been recorded. Major Findings from the AZ studies 1. Impact of different insecticides on beneficial insects: Twenty-three insecticide treatments plus untreated check were tested for their efficacies in alfalfa field at University of Arizona Maricopa Agricultural Center in 2024. To investigate the impacts of these insecticide treatments on beneficial insects, five sweeps per plot were taken weekly from each plot during the span of this experiment. Over the four-week post-treatment period, the variety of beneficial insects in the alfalfa fields was limited. According to sweep data, only ladybugs (Coccinellidae) and spiders were consistently present. At the same time, damsel bugs (Nabis spp.), big-eyed bugs (Geocoris spp.), and minute pirate bugs (Orius spp.) were rarely found. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in ladybug populations between the treatments and the untreated check (UTC). Delegate WG (6 oz./acre) plots had the numerical highest ladybug counts (5 sweeps), while Plinazolin (1.5 oz./acre) had the lowest. However, significant variations were observed across treatments in spider populations (crab and ground spiders). UTC plots recorded the highest spider populations (5 sweeps), whereas the lowest populations were found in plots treated with Endigo ZCX (4.5 oz./acre) and Cobalt Adv. (24 oz./acre). The active ingredients in these insecticides--Thiamethoxam + Lambda-cyhalothrin (Endigo ZCX) and Chlorpyrifos + Lambda-cyhalothrin (Cobalt Adv.)--negatively impact spider populations. 2.Field Cage Experiment 2024: A field experiment was conducted at the University of Arizona's Maricopa Agricultural Center research farm in Maricopa, AZ. The experimental setup involved Lumite field cages (Figure 4) measuring 3 feet x 3 feet x 3 feet. They were made of fine mesh and placed over established alfalfa with 5-foot alleys between each replication and cage. These cages prevented arthropod movement in or out. Predator and prey diversity were manipulated within each cage (ten treatments, three replications) based on the availability of species in nearby alfalfa fields, primarily focusing on ladybugs and spiders. No other beneficial insects were sufficiently abundant for inclusion. The entire experimental area was sprayed with Warrior II (1.92 oz./acre) one week before the cages were installed to eliminate any existing insect populations. Around 500-600 aphids and 20-25 alfalfa weevil larvae (both small and large) were introduced into each cage, along with various combinations of beneficial insects. The bases of the cages were sealed with paving stones (7.75-inch x 4-inch x 1.75-inch) to prevent insect movement. The cages remained in the field for 21 days to observe interactions between beneficial insects and pests. After three weeks, insects were collected using a handheld vacuum to gather those on the upper parts of the plants. Additionally, the plants were shaken inside a bucket to dislodge any remaining arthropods. Fresh yield was measured by harvesting a 4-square-foot section from the center of each cage using a hedge trimmer. No statistically significant differences between the control (UTC) and other treatments were found in beneficial insect and pest populations. There was no significant difference in fresh yield but in moisture content after oven drying the fresh samples. The highest fresh yield was achieved in the treatment where a combination of ladybugs (adult and larvae) and spiders was introduced into the cages. The lowest yield and moisture content was recorded while treated with only ladybug adults and larvae (Figure 5). Economic Component of research funding The economic component of this project had a delay in work due to a graduate student unexpectedly leaving. A new student began helping in the fall of 2024. The enterprise budgets were finalized in person surveys being done with producers, brokers, and processors within Utah to verify cost and production information. The finalized enterprise budgets will be the basis for the upcoming economic threshold models that will be completed in 2025. Additionally, in 2024, a comprehensive literature review of economic threshold models in alfalfa production was completed and assisted in developing preliminary economic model formulations.
Publications
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Progress 09/01/22 to 08/31/23
Outputs
Target Audience:The target audience includes the scientific community that focus on forage crops, and environmental factors that affect agriculture. We have targeted our work on alfalfa pests and beneficial insects toward producers, extension agents, and crop advisors. Changes/Problems:At the beginning of 2023, PI Ramirez accepted a position as Department Head at NMSU. Therefore, the project team made adjustments that were approved by USDA. First, PI lead was change to co-PI Bernhardt (now the current PI). A subaward is being created to add former PI Ramirez as co-PI. With this change it also negatively affected the timeline of recruiting graduate students in the first field season. Taken together this naturally slowed the amount of progress we could make in the 2023 field season and the project team was approved for a no-cost extension. In addition to the change of PI, both Arizona and Utah experienced extreme weather during the typical sampling period. Utah had a "long" winter with a record breaking snowpack. This caused the typical spring season to be almost non-existent and to substantially delay the summer growing season. This presented challenges with effectively collecting insects in Utah. In addition to the growing challenges in Northern Utah, Arizona also had the following challenges: Extreme weather during sampling:The major challenge was windy weather during sampling days. Many samples are marked as defective due to insufficient representation of insects. Finding suitable fields for cage experiment:Finding a suitable field for our upcoming cage experiment and keeping those sealed to restrict arthropod movements could be challenging. Extreme weather (thunderstorms, flash floods) might affect the cages in the field, which can impact the quality of raw data. We are working on this to keep the margin of error as low as possible. Research Gap: The huge research gap in most insects' outdated economic threshold levels in alfalfa is a major challenge. Establishing a new updated threshold level for each of the major alfalfa and natural enemies and pests could take significant time and research. Work is already occurring to prepare and mitigate challenges they may arise during the 2024 growing/collection season. We learned how to make appropriate adjustments in 2023 and are planning for potential adjustments in the coming season. In addition, with Dr. Ramirez now in New Mexico, this potentially opens up an additional field collection region that will could better ensure research objective success. What opportunities for training and professional development has the project provided?This project provided support for 2 graduate students (Rose Sepesy USU Biology, USU economic MS student, and Luis Ochoa-Cadena recruited to NMSU) and a post doc (Arizona). In the first field season we also had the support of a current graduate student at Utah State University (Rose Sepesy) with PI Bernhardt. Through this support, undergraduate technicians were trained by the graduate student, post doc, and PIs in arthropod and sampling techniques, identification, and data entry. A graduate student, Rose Sepesy (PI Bernhardt lab) has gained training and professional development opportunities through coursework (Statistics and Sustainable Production Systems) and implementation of project objectives. Rose and Luis are developing skills in experimental design and statistical analysis for each of her respective components of the project. The postdoctoral fellow in Arizona was trained to conduct large scale field experiments, developing skills of statistical analysis, experimental design, and writing associated with this project. Seen below are some examples of the skills, both field and analytical, that our students/post-docs have obtained in the past year and moving forward: Proper Sampling Techniques: For raw data collection, the correct way of sampling using a sweep net is crucial. All the people associated with data collection responsibility have been trained properly to obtain quality raw data. Knowledge regarding Insecticides and Boom-sprayer: Team members have gone through a step-by-step process to learn the usage and precaution guidelines for the insecticides and the mechanism of the sprayer used for different treatments. Counting and Sorting Insects: It is another essential part of data collection. People gathered enough experience to perform this duty after the trial samplings. Performing Statistical Analyses: We have experienced people who have previously worked on different statistical software for data analyses. Newer members of our team are being trained to do statistical analysis correctly. Exposure to Outreach Experiences:The people associated with the project always get a chance to improve their communication skills by providing talks and presentations in extension events and workshops, discussing with the stakeholders, and looking for potential collaborators. Collaboration and Writing Grants: Team members gather experience to communicate with potential collaborators to develop interdisciplinary research proposals on alfalfa. How have the results been disseminated to communities of interest?To deliver project findings, PhD graduate student Rose Sepesy presented work at the Utah Hay Conference in January 2023. Additionally, Dr. Ramirez presented additional research findings in a symposium at this same conference at the Utah Hay Conference. The research findings are also part of Utah State University mission as a land grand school and extension outreach events. On multiple occasions, Dr. Ramirez presented findings and education throughout the state at multiple USU Crop Schools in winter/spring 2023. These schools educate producers, ag professionals, and extension agents interested in crop/pest management in alfalfa. A list of disseminated publications and talks from Bernhardt SA and Ramirez R.: Vardiman, J., S. Schell, K. Wanner, E. Rodbell, R.A. Ramirez, and J. Bradshaw. 2022. Management of insecticide resistance in alfalfa weevil for the Intermountain West: Montana, Utah, and Wyoming. University of Wyoming Extension Publication. MP-154 Sepesy, R., S. Bernhardt, and R.A. Ramirez. 2022. Battling the resistance (of pesticides)- A growing issue in alfalfa? Utah Plant Pest Diagnostic Laboratory and USU Extension Publication. Vol. 16: Winter Sepesy R. 2023 Overview of insecticide susceptibility of pests associated with alfalfa. Utah Hay Conference, St. George Utah. Ramirez, R.A.2023. Multi-state connections to develop forage IPM in the West. Symposium: Developing IPM programs in the Pacific Northwest: Cross-Border Collaborations and Success. Annual Meeting of the Pacific Branch Entomological Society of America, APR 3-5. Seattle, WA Ramirez, R.A. 2023. Alfalfa insect management. Beaver, Carbon, Millard, San Juan, Sevier, Wayne County Crop Schools (six presentations). JAN 19-20, JAN 31-FEB 2, FEB 8-9. Minersville, Price, Delta, Blanding, and Richfield, UT. In addition to research finding dissemination conducted in Utah, Dr. Ayman's research team was also busy in Arizona. For example, Field Crops IPM personnel shared important information on the natural enemies of alfalfa in Field Crops Clinic, January 2023. They distributed handouts to the stakeholders to educate them about the essential identification techniques. Dr. Ayman's team demonstrated the correct sweeping techniques to the growers and PCAs in Yuma to monitor pest and natural enemy populations in the field. Yuma Field Day, July 2023. They shared information and results on how natural enemies play a crucial role in crop production and IPM' in the Integrated Pest Management Workshop, arranged by USDA in Phoenix, AZ, in August 2023. Information and results on the alfalfa weevil and aphid efficacy trial were shown and discussed at the Annual Alfalfa and Forage Tent Talk, Buckeye, AZ, August 2023. Preliminary results on "the effect of different insecticides on natural enemy population in alfalfa" were shared among the stakeholders on 13th Central Arizona Farmers Field Day at Maricopa Ag Center in November 2023. What do you plan to do during the next reporting period to accomplish the goals?For the next project year, we will continue our progress on understanding insecticide susceptibilities in both alfalfa natural enemy and pest insects in objective 1. We will also further develop the economic threshold model specific to beneficial/pest insects with respects to alfalfa. Alongside efficacy trials next spring, we will work on executing a field cage (1m X 1m X 1m, fines mesh) experiment evaluating natural enemy community impacts on alfalfa weevil and aphid suppression in their different life stages. Considering the effect of insecticides on natural enemy communities, we will manipulate predator diversity (the three most abundant species) accordingly to evaluate the impact on weevils and aphids. We are also planning to evaluate the relationship between western landscapes and environmental factors (e.g., air temperature, rainfall, relative humidity) affecting natural communities in alfalfa in Maricopa County. We plan to identify and monitor fields (including commercial fields in Maricopa and Pinal County) with different landscapes and surroundings. It might provide some vital information on the landscape-insect population relationship.
Impacts
What was accomplished under these goals?
In 2022-23, the PI and Co-PI's had 3 organizational meetings to establish the framework for accomplishing each objective. In the first field season (2023) a survey fields were determined, presence of insects, and insecticide susceptibility was conducted to determine suitability for success (Obj. 1 in proposal). 27 fields (Table 1) were initially evaluated across northern Utah in 3 counties. Using sweep net sampling, we created transects for sampling. These samples were initially collected by a PhD student at Utah State University and shipped to New Mexico State University for processing. A PhD graduate student was recruited and recently started (August 2023) at New Mexico State University under the direction of Dr. Ricardo Ramirez. Specimens were recently shipped to this lab for processing. Table 1: Survey fields in northern Utah Site #GrowerCountyLatitudeLongitude 1. A.N. Cache 41.8598450 -111.90124510 2. A.N. Cache 41.8797864 -111.89197540 3. M.S. Cache 41.9026693 -111.91118720 4. M.S. Cache 41.9089205 -111.92287450 5. M.S. Cache 41.9317520 -111.90124510 6. M.S. Cache 41.9320393 -111.90442090 7. J.B. Cache 41.8355489 -111.94862370 8. J.B. Cache 41.8065939 -111.91186160 9. B.T. Cache 41.7026527 -111.92047120 10. C.P. Cache 41.6599423 -111.85051650 11. J.D. Weber 41.2363099 -112.10224050 12. J.D. Weber 41.2423207 -112.10674280 13. J.D. Weber 41.2347908 -112.10591000 14. L.M. Weber 41.2129597 -112.05988400 15. L.M. Weber 41.2328321 -112.05453870 16. L.M. Weber 41.2342340 -112.05608580 17. J.H. Weber 41.2884258 -112.03555860 18. J.H. Weber 41.3355702 -112.06213320 19. B.P. Box Elder 41.6346901 -112.09355059 20. B.P. Box Elder 41.6400784 -112.10363390 21. T.N. Box Elder 41.6894505 -112.12200160 22. T.N. Box Elder 41.6943215 -112.11693760 23. T.N. Box Elder 41.6963159 -112.18081490 24. T.N. Box Elder 41.6918715 -112.18894200 25. T.N. Box Elder 41.6858754 -112.18146690 26. M.S. Cache 41.9214070 -111.89618110 27. M.S. Cache 41.9213112 -111.89360620 In 2023, Dr. Ryan Larsen, successfully recruited a MS graduate student. This student started graduate work in Fall 2023. The student has begun developing detailed alfalfa enterprise budgets for different regions of Utah. These budgets will be used to develop the economic threshold model. Dr. Larsen anticipates these budgets completed by the end of 2023. Dr. Ayman and the research team in Arizona conducted an alfalfa weevil and aphid efficacy trial in April 2023. Using RCBD, they had four replications of five different insecticides (with different active ingredients) (Table 2) used widely in alfalfa pest management. Variability in five different species of natural enemy populations were compared between 12 and 18 days after treatment (DAT) samples. They applied a two-factor ANOVA analysis to compare the variability in the population. Table 2: List of different insecticides with their active ingredient (a.i.) and selectivity Trade Name (dose)Active IngredientSelectivity Warrior II (1.92 oz/A)Lambda-cyhalothrin Broad (Plant bugs, beetles, Caterpillars) Steward (11oz/A)Indoxacarb Narrow (Caterpillars, beetles, lygus bugs) Besiege (6 oz/A)Chlorantraniliprole and Lambda-cyhalothrin Broad (Caterpillar, bugs, flies, beetles) Endigo (4.5 oz/A)Thiamethoxam and Lambda-cyhalothrin Broad(Caterpillars, beetles, bugs) Sivanto (10.5 oz/A)Flupyradifurone Narrow (Aphids, leafhoppers) Major Findings from the AZ studies:This was the first attempt to study relationships between alfalfa winter pests and natural enemy populations, with more of testing the concept approach. In summary, their statistical analysisshowed that 18DAT samples have more (significant at 95% confidence interval) natural enemies (Minute pirate bugs and Parasitoid wasps) than 12DAT samples, except Lady Bugs, which are more abundant in 12DAT samples. No chemicals have shown significant differences in population. Big-eyed bugs and Damsel bugs have a higher population in untreated check (UTC) than other insecticide-treated plots but not significantly (at 95% CI) higher. It is the preliminary result from their latest trial, but they are working on this data to find a more specific relationship between insecticides and the natural enemy population. It might be too early to state any specific effect of different insecticides on the natural enemy populations. They are working to have two more trials in the coming years, which can provide more specific and important information regarding insecticide and variability in natural enemy populations.
Publications
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