Progress 10/01/23 to 09/30/24
Outputs
PROGRESS REPORT Objectives (from AD-416): The goal of this research project is to use a wide range of technological approaches in the utilization of agricultural byproducts and feedstocks to improve functionalities of protein/carbohydrate particles for applications including, polymer seals, battery, pesticide, food ingredients, cellulose products, elastomer, and water treatment. Over the next five years, we will focus on the following objectives: Objective 1: Enable commercial production of new products based on functionalized particles for polymer seals and energy storage applications. Objective 2: Enable commercial production of new products based on the microencapsulation of environmentally-friendly pesticides and bioactive food ingredients. Objective 3: Enable commercial production of value-added products of micro/nano-sized celluloses and hemicelluloses from various agricultural wastes. Objective 4: Enable commercial processes to produce biochar products for elastomer composites and water treatment applications. Approach (from AD-416): This research aims to enable biobased particle technologies that produce functional particles using renewable agricultural byproducts and feedstocks. The characteristics of these functional particles include size, shape, aggregate structure, and surface functionalities. These particles can be further modified to function as reinforcements in polymer matrices, multifunctional coatings for battery separator membranes, as controlled-release materials delivering food ingredients and chemicals and as cosmetic ingredients, and filtering media for water purification. The outcome of this research will contribute to the utilization of vast amounts of byproducts generated by the food industries, and benefit climate change by reducing greenhouse gases, all of which will promote a sustainable global bio-economy. Our previous research on biobased particles has produced composites with useful mechanical properties. Further development will advance polymer seals and energy storage applications. Our ⿿masterbatch process⿿ will be applied to develop multifunctional coatings on battery separator membrane for ion conduction and short circuit prevention. Encapsulated products will be developed to extend active time of natural pesticides and to stabilize bioactive food ingredients. We will also develop nano-size hemicellulose/ cellulosic materials for composite and cosmetic applications. Sustainable biochar from agricultural byproducts will be developed as an effective water filtration media for agricultural run-off and potable water. We will also improve biochar to become a more effective rubber filler. Upon the completion of this project plan, all technologies developed will be transferred to respective industries. A critical vacancy has halted progress of Objective 1. In support of Objective 2, research has progressed as planned. The corn protein, zein, is the most common encapsulant for many types of core materials, including fragrances, drugs, nutraceuticals, and pesticides. With conventional encapsulation technology, the core materials must dissolve in 90% ethanol. Therefore, highly hydrophobic compounds that do not dissolve in this solvent, such as long-chain fatty acids and many bio- active food ingredients, cannot be encapsulated with zein. To resolve this issue, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, developed a new encapsulation process by modifying the conventional process. With this new process, the difficulty of dissolving the starting material was resolved by using multiple solvents. This new process allows encapsulation of most water-insoluble core materials, such as fragrances, drugs, nutraceuticals, and pesticides, into zein capsules. For the controlled release and/or environmental protection of core materials, such as bioactive essential oils and healthy polyunsaturated fats, zein encapsulation has been utilized. However, the application of the conventional encapsulation process is limited to water-insoluble core materials. To resolve this issue, a protocol for the encapsulation of water-soluble compounds was developed. With this protocol, a water- soluble biopolymer is used as a base material and mixed with a target core material and freeze-dried to prepare solid particles. These particles are then coated with zein. In principle, any type of water- soluble core material, such as certain vaccines, can be encapsulated into zein capsules using this process. Encapsulation of vaccines is particularly useful for oral administration of animal vaccines because the shell can protect the vaccine from degradation in the gut. In support of Objective 3, three different preparation methods have been investigated, compared, and optimized to prepare cellulose from soybean hulls, a plentiful agricultural waste material. ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, determined various conditions of the extraction process such as pH, temperature, and heating time. Three separate mechanical shearing methods (homogenization, micro-fluidization, and jet-cooking) were also compared and optimized to determine the most efficient means of nanocellulose production. Characterization of the soybean hull-based nanocellulose is ongoing and involves determining chemical purity, morphological studies by low-voltage electron microscope, mechanical properties of nanocellulose thin films, and viscoelastic properties of nanocellulose gels. In support of Objective 4, biochars, sourced from pistachio shells and walnut shells, were evaluated as a potential rubber composite filler. Walnut and pistachio shells are a plentiful, low-value agricultural waste stream. By heat- treating these shells in the absence of oxygen, they can be converted to biochar, a sustainable source of carbon that is like carbon black, a common rubber composite filler that is sourced from fossil fuels. ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, have formulated rubber composites where up to 40% of the carbon black has been replaced with walnut or pistachio shell biochar, and yet still has improved tensile strength, elongational properties, and toughness relative to a 100% carbon black-filled control. ACCOMPLISHMENTS 01 Development of high-value nanocellulose fibers from waste soybean hulls for cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and medical products. Soybean hulls are an agricultural waste product that has little value. Millions of bushels of soybean hulls are produced each year in the United States. ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, have developed a method to prepare nanocellulose from soybean hulls. Nanocellulose fibers are tiny, plant- based fibers that are incredibly strong, environmentally friendly, sustainable, and non-toxic (safe for food and medical uses). Because of their very small size and unique properties, nanocellulose fibers are high-value, biodegradable materials that are useful in the production of cosmetics, drug delivery systems, and wound-healing applications. These results advance the conversion of a high-volume agricultural byproduct into valuable biobased materials promoting economic opportunities for soybean farmers and sustainable options for industry and consumers. 02 Using walnut and pistachio shells to reduce fossil fuel dependence. Pistachio and walnut shells are low-value agricultural waste materials. These shells can be processed into biochar, a sustainable form of solid carbon that is like carbon black, a common rubber composite filler sourced from fossil fuels. ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, have developed natural rubber composites where up to 40% of the carbon black has been replaced with pistachio or walnut shell biochar that provides improved tensile strength, elongation, and toughness properties relative to a 100% carbon black-filled control. Thus, this technology enables the conversion an agricultural waste stream into a renewable filler for rubber capable of replacing a large portion of a fossil fuel- derived filler, namely, carbon black. This development promotes new economic opportunities for pistachio and walnut producers as well as rubber compound producers and users and helps reduce our dependence on fossil resources.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Selling, G.W., Hay, W.T., Peterson, S.C., Hojilla-Evangelista, M.P., Kenar, J.A., Utt, K.D. 2024. Structure and functionality of surface-active amylose-fatty amine salt inclusion complexes. Carbohydrate Polymers. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122186.
- Peterson, S.C., McMahan, C.M. 2023. Replacement of carbon black with coppiced biochar in guayule rubber composites improves tensile properties. Journal of Composites Science. 7(12):499. https://doi.org/10.3390/ jcs7120499.
- Hwang, H., Kim, S., Moser, J.K. 2024. Unsaturation and polar compounds of vegetable oils affect the properties of sunflower wax oleogels. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt. 202300205.
- Cheng, H.N., Biswas, A., Kuzniar, G., Kim, S., Liu, Z., He, Z. 2024. Blends of carboxymethyl cellulose and cottonseed protein as biodegradable films. Polymers. 16(11). Article 1554. https://doi.org/10.3390/ polym16111554.
- Xu, J., Boddu, V.M., Kenar, J.A. 2024. Micro-heterogeneity and micro- rheological properties of cellulose-based hydrogel studied by diffusing wave spectroscopy (DWS). Cellulose Chemistry and Technology. 58(1-2), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.35812/CelluloseChemTechnol.2024.58.01.
- Xu, J., Kenar, J.A. 2024. Rheological and micro-rheological properties of chicory inulin gels. Gels. 10(3). Article 171. https://doi.org/10.3390/ gels10030171.
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Progress 10/01/22 to 09/30/23
Outputs
(N/A)
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Peterson, S.C., Thomas, A.J. 2022. Lauric acid treatments to oxidized and control biochars and their effects on rubber composite tensile properties. C - Journal of Carbon Research. 8(4). Article 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/ c8040058.
- Biswas, A., Cheng, H.N., Kuzniar, G.M., He, Z., Kim, S., Furtado, R.F., Alves, C.R., Sharma, B.K. 2023. Bilayer films of Poly(lactic acid) and cottonseed protein for packaging applications. Polymers. 15(6). Article 1425. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061425.
- Moser, J.K., Hwang, H., Felker, F.C., Byars, J.A., Peterson, S.C. 2023. Increasing the firmness of wax-based oleogels using ternary mixtures of sunflower wax with beeswax:candelilla wax combinations. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 100(5):387-402. https://doi.org/10.1002/ aocs.12679.
- Kenar, J.A., Compton, D.L., Peterson, S.C., Felker, F.C. 2022. Characterization and properties of starch-dicarboxylic acid inclusion complexes prepared by excess steam jet cooking. Carbohydrate Polymers. 296. Article 119955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119955.
- Vaughn, S.F., Liu, S.X., Berhow, M.A., Moser, J.K., Peterson, S.C., Selling, G.W., Hay, W.T., Jackson, M.A., Skory, C.D. 2023. Production of an odor-reducing, low-dust, clumping cat litter from soybean hulls and soybean hull biochar. Bioresource Technology Reports. 21. Article 101317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2022.101317.
- Selling, G.W., Hay, W.T., Evans, K.O., Peterson, S.C., Utt, K.D. 2023. Improved hydroxypropyl methylcellulose films through incorporation of amylose-N-1-hexadecylammonuium chloride inclusion complexes. Industrial Crops and Products. 194. Article 116352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop. 2023.116352.
- Xu, J., Selling, G.W., Liu, S.X. 2023. Effect of jet-cooking on rheological properties of navy bean flour suspensions. Food Chemistry Advances. 2. Article 100316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2023.100316.
- Hwang, H., Kim, S., Moser, J.K., Lee, S.L., Liu, S.X. 2022. Feasibility of hemp seed oil oleogels structured with natural wax as solid fat replacement in margarine. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 99(11):1055-1070. https://doi.org/10.1002/aocs.12619.
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Progress 10/01/21 to 09/30/22
Outputs
PROGRESS REPORT Objectives (from AD-416): The goal of this research project is to use a wide range of technological approaches in the utilization of agricultural byproducts and feedstocks to improve functionalities of protein/carbohydrate particles for applications including, polymer seals, battery, pesticide, food ingredients, cellulose products, elastomer, and water treatment. Over the next five years, we will focus on the following objectives: Objective 1: Enable commercial production of new products based on functionalized particles for polymer seals and energy storage applications. Objective 2: Enable commercial production of new products based on the microencapsulation of environmentally-friendly pesticides and bioactive food ingredients. Objective 3: Enable commercial production of value-added products of micro/nano-sized celluloses and hemicelluloses from various agricultural wastes. Objective 4: Enable commercial processes to produce biochar products for elastomer composites and water treatment applications. Approach (from AD-416): This research aims to enable biobased particle technologies that produce functional particles using renewable agricultural byproducts and feedstocks. The characteristics of these functional particles include size, shape, aggregate structure, and surface functionalities. These particles can be further modified to function as reinforcements in polymer matrices, multifunctional coatings for battery separator membranes, as controlled-release materials delivering food ingredients and chemicals and as cosmetic ingredients, and filtering media for water purification. The outcome of this research will contribute to the utilization of vast amounts of byproducts generated by the food industries, and benefit climate change by reducing greenhouse gases, all of which will promote a sustainable global bio-economy. Our previous research on biobased particles has produced composites with useful mechanical properties. Further development will advance polymer seals and energy storage applications. Our ⿿masterbatch process⿿ will be applied to develop multifunctional coatings on battery separator membrane for ion conduction and short circuit prevention. Encapsulated products will be developed to extend active time of natural pesticides and to stabilize bioactive food ingredients. We will also develop nano-size hemicellulose/ cellulosic materials for composite and cosmetic applications. Sustainable biochar from agricultural byproducts will be developed as an effective water filtration media for agricultural run-off and potable water. We will also improve biochar to become a more effective rubber filler. Upon the completion of this project plan, all technologies developed will be transferred to respective industries. For the manufacture of rubber composites, various types of fillers are incorporated into rubber. Among many types of fillers, hydrophilic (dispersible in water) fillers have an advantage over others as they can readily form chemical bonds with other component materials. Previously, it was reported that the rubber composites (seals) reinforced with soy protein particles (hydrophilic filler) have less swelling in oil, and the mechanical strength does not decrease significantly as the temperature is increased when compared with carbon black reinforced rubber. As a continuation of this research under Objective 1, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois investigated the effect of the different manufacturing processes on mechanical properties and thermal degradation of the final products. The rubber composites reinforced with soy protein particles and carbon black were processed using two different methods: casting (a manufacturing process in which products are fabricated in the mold) and freeze-drying. This research revealed that rubber composites prepared by casting showed desirable mechanical properties due to the greater interactions between component materials in the reinforced rubber. Encapsulation is an emerging technology that can be used for the controlled release of pesticides or for the prevention of degradation of bio-active food ingredients. Our laboratory has been systematically analyzing one of the encapsulation techniques (that is, induction of emulsion formation followed by wrapping the formed droplets with protein molecules) to find optimal conditions for the process. As a result, two environment-friendly pesticides could be encapsulated into protein nanocapsules at the highest possible encapsulation efficiency. In the current work under Objective 2, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, successfully encapsulated a bioactive food ingredient, alpha-tocopherol (a form of vitamin E), into corn protein nanocapsules with some modifications of the previously defined process. As the same procedure is expected to be applicable to many other bioactive food ingredients including water-insoluble vitamins and polyphenols, more experiments for the encapsulation of these ingredients are in progress. Additional research under Objective 2 enhanced the encapsulation process using ethanol. Our current encapsulation process can be used as long as the materials to be encapsulated are soluble in 90% aqueous ethanol. Since this requirement limits the usage of the process, a protocol that employs pure ethanol was developed. Given that pure ethanol dissolves many water- insoluble food ingredients, the newly developed encapsulation procedure is expected to be applicable to a much broader range of materials. The efficacy of this new process is shown to be promising, but its performance needs to be further verified by the actual production of nanocapsules that are loaded with active food ingredients. Many agricultural residues such as sorghum stover have little economic value other than for mulching back into the soil or for burning as fuel. Sorghum stover contains several fibers such as hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on earth and has been used as digestible fibers in food products and as the major constituent of paper, paperboard, and card stock for many years. However, cellulose particles are usually very large and are not soluble in water unless their sizes are reduced to the nanometer scale. Under Objective 3, significant progress was achieved by ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois in developing and optimizing a method for the preparation of nano- cellulose from sorghum stover. The variables for the cellulose extraction include pH (acidity/basicity), temperature, and heating time. The product of these efforts provided nano-cellulose with a diameter of 10-30 nm (1 nm = 1/1,000,000 millimeter). The purity of the sorghum stover-based nanocellulose and the physical/mechanical properties of the films/gels prepared using nano-cellulose are being investigated. Car and truck tires may have up to 30% carbon black. There is a need to make rubber composites for the tire industry that replace carbon black filler (fossil fuel based) with biochar (from renewable biomass) in a way that will not provide an inferior tire. This improves sustainability of the tire industry by using biomaterials as filler instead of petroleum products. Under Objective 4, significant progress was achieved by ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, in developing two methods to modify the surface of biochar in order to enhance its interactions with rubber for automotive tire applications. Both methods are being tested on high carbon-content biochar that has been silica milled to increase surface area to assess if biochar can replace carbon black more effectively as a reinforcing filler. ACCOMPLISHMENTS 01 Improved rubber composites using soy protein particles. A composite material is a combination of multiple components with different physical and chemical properties. Conventionally, carbon black has been used as a filler to reinforce rubber. Agricultural fillers in principle can be used to reinforce rubber, however, they typically do not provide sufficient benefits to offset the increased cost. To address this, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, prepared rubber composites by using soy protein particles as the agricultural filler. The resulting rubber composites underwent less swelling when exposed to oil and temperature induced mechanical strength loss was reduced versus carbon black. The outcome of this research is expected to encourage rubber industries to use agricultural fillers and foster the market for soybean crop and soy protein, creating new economic opportunities for farmers and rural communities. 02 Encapsulated bio-active food ingredients into protein nano capsules that can aid in reducing the risk of chronic diseases. The most abundant and biologically active form of vitamin E is alpha-tocopherol (TOC). It is a water-insoluble antioxidant and can reduce the risk of many chronic diseases associated with oxidative stress, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological and endocrinological disorders. However, TOC is biologically unstable when exposed to environmental factors such as light, temperature, and air (oxygen). To improve the stability of this type of bioactive compound, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, have developed a procedure to encapsulate TOC into zein (corn protein) nanocapsules (the diameter of these particles is ~1/10, 000 of a millimeter). The developed encapsulation process uses edible ingredients, and its encapsulation efficiency is higher than 90%, thus markedly improving the stability of the active ingredient. This new process should be applicable to the encapsulation of many other bio- active food ingredients that are not miscible in water. This technology provides a viable route to provide unstable valued ingredients to the consumer in an inexpensive and robust fashion and to utilize zein as a valuable corn product, benefiting farmers, food producers, and the ultimate consumer. 03 Developed value-added nano-cellulose from sorghum stover expanding its commercial uses. Sorghum stover is considered an agricultural waste that has little economic value. It contains several fibers such as hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Cellulose, which has been used for many years in food and non-food applications (as digestible fibers in food products and as the major constituent of paper, paperboard, and card stock), is the most abundant organic polymer on earth. However, one of the drawbacks slowing the rate of cellulose penetration into the water soluble/dispersible products markets is that cellulose particles are too large to process in water. If the particle size of cellulose is reduced to the nanometer scale (1 nm = 1/1,000,000 millimeter), these particles can be dispersed into water and form gel-like suspensions which have unique properties that significantly expand it⿿s beyond those highlighted earlier. These applications would include automobile panels, paints, and 3D printing. Unfortunately, little research has been conducted in using agricultural waste sorghum stover for isolating cellulose and producing sorghum nano-cellulose. ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, have developed a relatively simple method to prepare cellulose from sorghum stover. After treating the sorghum cellulose in a fashion often seen in the paper industry, the material was subjected to high temperature (200 F) with extremely high mixing (high pressure homogenization). This resulted in the long sorghum cellulosic fibers to be reduced mechanically to provide nano-sized cellulose. The nano-sized cellulose will broaden the use of cellulose from sorghum, a climate resilient crop, and benefit consumers by providing a new route for delivering high value biobased products.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Peterson, S.C. 2022. Carbon black replacement in natural rubber composites using dry-milled calcium carbonate, soy protein, and biochar. Processes. 10(1). Article 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010123.
- Jong, L. 2021. Mechanical properties of rubber reinforced with silica and hydrolyzed carbohydrate/protein fillers. Journal of Rubber Research. 24:523-531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42464-021-00119-2.
- Jong, L. 2021. Simplification of interior latex paint using biopolymer to replace rheological additives and calcium carbonate extender. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research. 18:1603-1612. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11998-021-00514-9.
- Xu, J., Boddu, V.M., Liu, S.X. 2022. Rheological properties of hydrogels produced by cellulose derivatives cross-linked with citric acid, succinic acid, and sebacic acid. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology. 56 (1-2), 49- 54. https://doi.org/10.35812/CelluloseChemTechnol.2022.56.04.
- Liu, S.X., Chen, D., Xu, J. 2022. Physiochemical properties of jet-cooked amaranth and improved rheological properties by processed oat bran. Future Foods. 5. Article e100107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100107.
- Jong, L. 2021. Effect of masterbatch drying methods on the properties of rubber reinforced with renewable hydrophilic filler. Journal of Elastomers and Plastics. 54(1):3-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/00952443211017179.
- Cheng, H.N., Biswas, A., Kim, S., Appell, M., Furtado, R.F., Bastos, M.S.R. , Alves, C.R. 2022. Synthesis and analysis of lactose polyurethanes and their semi-interpenetrating polymer networks. International Journal of Polymer Analysis and Characterization. 27(4):266-276. https://doi.org/10. 1080/1023666X.2022.2064037.
- Choi, K., Hwang, H., Jeong, S., Kim, S., Lee, S. 2020. The thermal, rheological, and structural characterization of grapeseed oil oleogels structured with binary blends of oleogelator. Journal of Food Science. 85(10):3432-3441. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15442.
- Evans, K.O., Skory, C.D., Compton, D.L., Cormier, R., Cote, G., Kim, S., Appell, M.D. 2020. Development and physical characterization of alpha- glucan nanoparticles. Molecules. 25(17). Article 3807. https://doi.org/10. 3390/molecules25173807.
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Progress 10/01/20 to 09/30/21
Outputs
PROGRESS REPORT Objectives (from AD-416): The goal of this research project is to use a wide range of technological approaches in the utilization of agricultural byproducts and feedstocks to improve functionalities of protein/carbohydrate particles for applications including, polymer seals, battery, pesticide, food ingredients, cellulose products, elastomer, and water treatment. Over the next five years, we will focus on the following objectives: Objective 1: Enable commercial production of new products based on functionalized particles for polymer seals and energy storage applications. Objective 2: Enable commercial production of new products based on the microencapsulation of environmentally-friendly pesticides and bioactive food ingredients. Objective 3: Enable commercial production of value-added products of micro/nano-sized celluloses and hemicelluloses from various agricultural wastes. Objective 4: Enable commercial processes to produce biochar products for elastomer composites and water treatment applications. Approach (from AD-416): This research aims to enable biobased particle technologies that produce functional particles using renewable agricultural byproducts and feedstocks. The characteristics of these functional particles include size, shape, aggregate structure, and surface functionalities. These particles can be further modified to function as reinforcements in polymer matrices, multifunctional coatings for battery separator membranes, as controlled-release materials delivering food ingredients and chemicals and as cosmetic ingredients, and filtering media for water purification. The outcome of this research will contribute to the utilization of vast amounts of byproducts generated by the food industries, and benefit climate change by reducing greenhouse gases, all of which will promote a sustainable global bio-economy. Our previous research on biobased particles has produced composites with useful mechanical properties. Further development will advance polymer seals and energy storage applications. Our ⿿masterbatch process⿿ will be applied to develop multifunctional coatings on battery separator membrane for ion conduction and short circuit prevention. Encapsulated products will be developed to extend active time of natural pesticides and to stabilize bioactive food ingredients. We will also develop nano-size hemicellulose/ cellulosic materials for composite and cosmetic applications. Sustainable biochar from agricultural byproducts will be developed as an effective water filtration media for agricultural run-off and potable water. We will also improve biochar to become a more effective rubber filler. Upon the completion of this project plan, all technologies developed will be transferred to respective industries. For objective 1, significant progress was made on the preparation and evaluation of polymer seals with soy-derived particles. One of the many applications for rubber is as rubber seals, such as O-rings, cup gasket, bellows diaphragms, sealing/wiper lips, and many others. The current rubber seals in the market do not contain renewable agricultural materials. To expand the market for agricultural materials and increase their value, we have attempted to incorporate these materials in rubber seal products. Among the requirements for rubber seals is good oil resistance so that the seals can maintain their mechanical properties in oily environment; however, not all rubbers have acceptable oil resistance when used in various applications. To improve oil resistance of rubbers by using renewable materials, three rubbers that have poor oil resistance were chosen as targets for improvement. Soybean-derived protein particles were used as filler at 40-60% to reinforce these rubbers. ARS researchers at Peoria, Illinois, found that the rubbers reinforced with soy protein particles had less swelling in oil and their strength was more stable with temperature change when compared with carbon black reinforced rubbers. The results indicate that the approach used is a promising route to further improve physical properties of rubber seals. For objective 2, significant progress was made on the preparation of protein microparticles that carry biopesticides. Encapsulation of pesticides into biodegradable polymers is a recent technology that enables pesticides to remain effective for a longer time following application. Corn protein (zein) was used as a shell material because of its well-established functionality as an encapsulant and then identified several controlling factors that lead to the highest encapsulation efficiency. This year, for the evaluation of the effect of encapsulation (i.e., controlled release of pesticides), we investigated the release profile of encapsulated pesticides and developed our own lab equipment for this work, as no commercial equipment is available for the continuous monitoring of the release profile. The obtained data clearly demonstrated that the encapsulation delays the evaporation of chemicals. This delay in evaporation varies depending on the encapsulation conditions. As zein is expensive, we isolated and purified another protein (gliadin, a wheat protein) that will replace zein. It's been noted that the functionality of gliadin as an encapsulant is promising. These findings will help scientists who use encapsulation technology when developing controlled- release chemicals. For objective 3, significant progress was made on the preparation of micro-/nano- cellulose and hemicellulose from agricultural wastes. Agricultural waste such as sorghum stover has little value. However, value-added products such as hemicellulose and cellulose can be prepared from sorghum stover. Three preparation methods have been investigated and compared to obtain the hemicellulose. One method was to use hot water to extract hemicellulose from sorghum stover at three solvent temperatures (80-100 C). Another method was to use sodium hydroxide at three different concentrations (4% - 10%). The last method was to use ethanol and strong base to remove the lignin from sorghum stover first, and then the hemicellulose was extracted with a dilute sodium hydroxide solution. The properties of the hemicellulose were investigated using infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography, and rheometer. The results show that sorghum stover hemicellulose, when prepared further into gels, can absorb significant amount of water. The ability of absorbing water indicates it can be used as a component in cosmetics to retain moisture in products such as face creams. For objective 4, significant progress was made on optimizing nanoparticle milling methods for biochar composites. Carbon black, the dominant filler in the global tire industry, is sourced from petroleum and contributes towards global warming. However, renewable sources of carbon reduce petroleum dependence while helping the environment. Biochar is a renewable source of carbon made from biomass that can replace carbon black in rubber composites. ARS researchers have discovered a synergistic effect between calcium carbonate and soy protein that helps reinforce rubber composites. By combining calcium carbonate, soy protein, and biochar in a new milling technique, rubber composites were created that allow up to 50% replacement of carbon black with virtually no loss in strength and with increased elongation and toughness. Rubber composites such as these have similar properties as their carbon black analogs but are more sustainable and reduce dependence on petroleum. Record of Any Impact of Maximized Teleworking Requirement: The maximized teleworking interrupted and postponed the experimental work in the lab for about two months. If more lab work could be performed, the research project could have been progressed much further. ACCOMPLISHMENTS 01 Improved oil resistance of rubber containing agricultural filler for seal applications. Some common rubbers have poor oil resistance, which is a disadvantage for rubber seals in many applications. ARS researchers at Peoria, Illinois, have studied the effect of an agricultural filler (from soy protein) in rubber composition on the oil resistance of the reinforced rubber. They found that rubber reinforced with soy protein particles has less swelling in oil and the mechanical strength does not decrease significantly as the temperature is increased when compared to carbon black reinforced rubber. The development of a new soy protein-reinforced rubber product for rubber gasket applications has the potential to increase the market and value of the soybean crop and soy protein, creating new economic opportunities for farmers and rural communities. 02 Encapsulation of natural biopesticides into protein nanocapsules. Many essential oils are natural biopesticides that are environmentally friendly. However, essential oils evaporate quickly, so their active times as pesticide are short. To resolve this issue, ARS researchers at Peoria, Illinois encapsulated the major component of an essential oil (menthol, as a model system) into a shell comprised of a corn protein, and developed an optimized encapsulation process that leads to the highest possible encapsulation efficiency. The established encapsulation procedure can be applied with minor modifications to various essential oils and other volatile natural biopesticides to increase their active times. In the case of eucalyptus oil, the active time was increased three to four times. 03 Development of value-added hemicellulose from agricultural waste sorghum stover. Sorghum stover is normally categorized as waste because it has very little economic value. At present, most sorghum stover is mulched back into the soil or burned as fuel. Sorghum contains hemicellulose, a polysaccharide present with cellulose in almost all terrestrial plant cell walls. ARS researchers at Peoria, Illinois developed an optimized method for the inexpensive and relatively ⿿green production of value-added hemicellulose from sorghum stover. Hemicellulose has many applications such as package films, emulsifiers, stabilizers, gels, and binders in food products, and can be further cross-linked into hydrogels that can be used in cosmetic products, agricultural seed coatings, and wound healing materials. This work on a biobased renewable resource benefits the environment and could generate additional income for sorghum growers.
Impacts
(N/A)
Publications
- Jong, L. 2020. Synergistic effect of calcium carbonate and biobased particles for rubber reinforcement and comparison to silica reinforced rubber. Journal of Composites Science. 4(3). Article 113. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/jcs4030113.
- Cheng, H.N., Biswas, A., Kim, S., Alves, C.R., Furtado, R.F. 2021. Synthesis and characterization of hydrophobically modified xylans. Polymers. 13:291. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020291.
- Liu, S.X., Chen, D., Plumier, B.M., Berhow, M.A., Xu, J., Byars, J.A. 2020. Impact of particle size fractions on composition, antioxidant activities, and functional properties of soybean hulls. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 15:1547-1562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020- 00746-0.
- Peterson, S.C., Kim, S., Adkins, J.E. 2021. Surface Charge Effects on Adsorption of Solutes by Poplar and Elm Biochars. C - Journal of Carbon Research. 7(1). Article 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/c7010011.
- Jackson, M.A., Price, N.P., Blackburn, J.A., Peterson, S.C., Kenar, J.A., Haasch, R., Chen, C. 2019. Partial hydrodeoxygenation of corn cob hydrolysate over palladium catalysts to produce 1-hydroxy-2-pentanone. Applied Catalysis A: General. 577:52-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcata. 2019.03.019.
- Kim, S., Peterson, S.C. 2021. Optimal conditions for the encapsulation of menthol into zein nanoparticles. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 144:Article 111213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.111213.
- Moser, B.R., Doll, K.M., Peterson, S.C. 2019. Renewable poly(thioether- ester)s from fatty acid derivatives via thiol-ene photopolymerization. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 96(7):825-837. https://doi. org/10.1002/aocs.12244.
- Vaughn, S.F., Moser, J.K., Berhow, M.A., Byars, J.A., Liu, S.X., Jackson, M.A., Peterson, S.C., Eller, F.J. 2020. An odor-reducing, low dust-forming, clumping cat litter produced from Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) wood fibers and biochar. Industrial Crops and Products. 147. Article 112224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112224.
- Vaughn, S.F., Byars, J.A., Jackson, M.A., Peterson, S.C., Eller, F.J. 2021. Tomato seed germination and transplant growth in a commercial potting substrate amended with nutrient-preconditioned Eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) wood biochar. Scientia Horticulturae. 280. Article 109947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2021.109947.
- Vaughn, S.F., Theiling, C., Rosenbohm, P., Eller, F.J., Peterson, S.C. 2021. Evaluation of engineered soils for bioretention areas containing dredged Illinois River sand, compost, biosolids and pyrolyzed biosolids. Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management. 7(1). Article e20096. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/cft2.20096.
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