Progress 04/01/04 to 09/30/07
Outputs
Changes in the characteristics of forest campers, in camping technologies, and the number and type of facilities at forest campgrounds may be changing the experiences, meanings, and environmental impacts of camping. The majority of campers studied indicated that they were able to get a nature-based experience even in highly-developed forest camp settings in which large motor homes, televisions, and satellite dishes were common. The meanings associated with developed forest camping were physical and mental restoration, family functioning, sharing family memories and stories, special places, self-identity, social interaction, experiencing nature, finding God in nature, novelty, and the opportunity for children to learn. For backcountry overnight and day canoeists at Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, the attributes that shaped experiences from greatest to least were percentage of water trails open to motorboats, number of other boats seen per day, level of development
along the trail and at the campsites, and fees charged per day. At the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, computer simulation modeling was used to monitor and estimate the current spatial and temporal distribution of use in the backcountry and then to evaluate how changes in entry levels might affect the number and location of encounters in the backcountry. Allowing campfires in designated spots only was more accepted and effective in reducing campfire impacts than a complete fire ban on unregulated campfires. Finally, preparing campsites in the backcountry and encouraging their use both reduced the number and expansion of campsites and was accepted by campers.
Impacts
Forest campers today appear to be seeking similar experiences as they did in the past, but these experiences and meanings are multi-dimensional, with high social and family values. In addition, attachment to special places and sharing memories and stories of special times at these places are very important. Managers might facilitate such benefits by allowing camper groups to return to and even reserve individual campsites. Campsite design might allow other family members or friends to join the camper group at the campsite. The campfire is also a critical element for socializing and contact with nature. Thus, campfires should be facilitated whenever possible. Campground managers might provide group learning activities in nature, especially where parents can facilitate their children's learning. Campers will also accept some restrictions on their freedom, especially when it is clear that such policies as "camping confinement" in the backcountry can improve environmental
quality and enhance solitude and privacy. Two innovative approaches to collection and analysis of recreation visitor data were developed, tested, and advanced by this research. Stated choice analysis and conjoint analysis provide recreationists with realistic scenarios of social, physical/biological, and managerial setting attributes and force them to make difficult but real tradeoffs among their preferences. This prevents visitors from stating high preferences for levels of attributes that are mutually exclusvie or extremely difficult for managers to provide. This project's work on computer simulation modeling demonstrates that managers can predict with acceptable accuracy and precision many "hard to measure in real time" experience variables. For example, once the relationships between amount, location, and time of recreationists entering a backcountry system and the amount of encounters between groups inside the area are established, then the computer model can assist the manager
in shaping the amount, locations, and time of use allowed to enter the backcountry.
Publications
- Reid, S. E. and J. L. Marion. 2004. Effectiveness of a confinement strategy for reducing campsite impacts in Shenandoah National Park. Environmental Conservation 31(4):274-282.
- Reid, S. E. and J. L. Marion. 2005. A comparison of campfire impacts and policies in seven protected areas. Environmental Management 36(1):48-58.
- Daniels, M. L. and J. L. Marion. 2006. Visitor evaluations of management actions at a highly impacted Appalachian Trail camping area. Environmental Management 38(6):1006-1019.
- Lawson, S., A. Moldovanyi, J. Roggenbuck and T. Hall. 2006. Reconciling tradeoffs in wilderness management: A comparison of day and overnight visitors' attitudes and preferences concerning management of Okefenokee Swamp Wilderness. In: Proc. 2005 George Wright Society Conference on Parks, Protected Areas and Cultural Sites. pp. 39-47.
- Marion, J. L. 2006. Structure creep: Managing the AT camping experience. Appalachian Trail Journeys 2(6):10-11.
- Wood, K., S. Lawson and J. Marion. 2006. Assessing recreation impacts to cliffs: Integrating visitor observation with trail and recreation site measurements. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration 24(4):86-110.
- Cahill, K., J. Marion and S. Lawson. 2007. Enhancing the interpretation of stated choice analysis through the application of a verbal protocol assessment. Journal of Leisure Research 39(2):201-221.
- Bullock, S. and S. Lawson. 2007. Examining the potential effects of management actions on visitor experiences on the summit of Cadillac Mountain, Acadia National Park. Human Ecology Review 14(2):140-156.
- Bullock, S. and S. Lawson. 2008. Managing the "Commons" on Cadillac Mountain: A stated choice analysis of Acadia National Park visitors' preferences. Leisure Sciences. IN PRESS.
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Progress 10/01/05 to 09/30/06
Outputs
Data collection and anlysis involved campers at the NPS Great Smoky Mountains National Park and at the USFWS Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuse and Wilderness. Conjoint rating questions were used to require campers at Okefenokee Swamp to weigh tradeoffs among possible setting and management attributes. The importance of attributes from greatest to least was percentage of water trails open to motorboats, num ber of other boats seen per day, leel of development along the trail and at the campsite, fees charged per day, freedom to enter and travel where you want, and amount of education and information materials provided. For freedom and education, varying levels of the attributes had no significant difference to respondents. In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, computer simulation modeling is beign used to estimate the current spatial and temporal distribution of visitor use of the backcountry, and to monitor such indicators of camping quality as number,
location, and type of encounters with other people. In addition, the computer simulations model is being used to estimate the effect of alternative backcountry management policies on campsite use densities and associated encounters. To construct and test the model, visitor survey data are being collected on camper group size, points and time of entry, and departure, travel route, and location and duration of extended spots at points on the trip itinerary through the backcountry.
Impacts
Most studies of camper preferences for management and setting attributes obtain visitor evaluations on an attribute-by-attribute basis. This can result in high visitor preferences for levels of attributes that are mutually exclusive, e.g., preferring solitude in the campsite and no limits on use. Conjoint analysis provides visitors with realistic scenarios of social, physical/biological, and managerial setting attributes, and forces them to make difficult but real tradeoffs among their preferences. At Okefenokee, campers were found to accept (1) limits on their freedom to travel in the swamp, (2) varying amounts of educational materials, and (3) paying a modest fee per day if these management actions would reduce encounters with people and with motors. The computer simulation modeling is demonstrating that managers canpredict with acceptable accuracy and precision many important "hard to measure in real time" experience quality variables. For example, it is difficult
for managers to measure change in amount, location, and duration of encounters among campers in the backcountry and to ascertain how changes in encounters relate both to changes in the number of entries into the backcountry and changes in experience quality outcomes. Once these relationships have been carefully measured and established, the computer simulation model can assist the manager in shaping amount, time, and type of use allowed to enter the backcountry.
Publications
- Lawson, S. 2006. Computer simulation as a tool for planning and management of visitor use in protected natural areas. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 14(6):600-617.
- Lawson, S., R. Itami, R. Gimblett and R. Manning. 2006. Benefits and challenges of computer simulation modeling of backcountry recreation use in the Desolation Lake area of the John Muir Wilderness. Journal of Leisure Research 38(2):187-207.
- Lawson, S. R., J. W. Roggenbuck, T. E. Hall and A. Moldovanyi. 2006. A conjoint analysis of preference heterogeneity among day and overnight visitors to the Okefenokee Wilderness. Journal of Leisure Research 38(4):575-600.
- Kiser, B. and S. Lawson. 2006. Examining the utility of computer simulation for monitoring multiple dimensions of wilderness solitude in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In: Proc. SE Recreation Research Conference, Wilmington, NC.
- Kiser, B., S. Lawson and B. Itami. 2006. Using computer simulation to monitor wilderness solidtude in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In: Proc. International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitor Flows in Recreational and Protected Areas, Rapperswil, Switzerland.
- Bullock, S. D. 2006. Integrating quantitative and qualitative research methods to inform management of the Cadillac Mountain Summit, Acadia National Park. M.S. Thesis. Department of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.
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Progress 10/01/04 to 09/30/05
Outputs
In-depth interviews were conducted at the USDA Forest Service Mount Rogers National Recreation Area with 38 camping groups in three campgrounds which varied in their level of development. Camping was a social experience, with participants defining much of their experience in terms of who they were with. But the majority of participants suggested that they were able to get a nature-based experience even in highly-developed camp settings in which large motor homes, televisions, and satellite dishes were common. The meanings associated with developed forest camping were restoration (i.e., rest, escape, and recovery), family functioning, special places, self-identity, social interaction, experiencing nature, association with God and nature, novelty, and the opportunity for children to learn. The most commonly-expressed life-context meanings were restoration and sharing family memories and stories.
Impacts
Many campers at Mount Rogers National Recreation Area have developed bonds with campgrounds and certain campsites over many years of use. Managers should respect these bonds and permit campers to reserve specific sites long in advance of their use. Family bonding and family functioning are benefits of camping, and managers should facilitate these benefits. Visits by non-camping members of the extended family should be facilitated. Campfires are centers of social activity and family/friendship bonding. Managers should encourage campfires by making firewood available. Finally, campground hosts should facilitate environmental learning and socializing by offering organized nature-based activities for children. These actions will increase the social and psychological benefits of forest camping for more than 20,000 campers at the Mount Rogers NRA.
Publications
- Garst, B. A. and J. W. Roggenbuck. 2005. An exploration of developed forest camping experiences and associated meanings in the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area. In: Proc. 2005 National Recreation and Park Assoc. Leisure Research Symposium, San Antonio, TX.
- Garst, B. A. and J. W. Roggenbuck. 2005. From tent pads to satellite dishes: An examination of the modern developed forest camping experience. In: Proc. 27th Annual SE Recreation Research Conference, Charleston, SC.
- Garst, B. A. 2005. An exploration of developed forest camping experiences and meanings in the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. 336 pp.
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Progress 10/01/03 to 09/30/04
Outputs
Changes in the socio-demographic characteristics of campers, in camping technologies, in expectations for amenities, and in the number and type of facilities provided at forest campgrounds may be changing the nature, meanings, and benefits of camping. Interviews with 79 camper groups at primitive, moderately-developed, and highly-developed USDA Forest Service campgrounds explored visitor experiences. The four most common experiences at a primitive campground were escape from work and responsibilities back home, opportunities for the children to learn, building family traditions and memories, and fostering family cohesiveness. In a moderately-developed campground, the most frequent camping meanings were escape from work and chores, spending time with family and friends, camping as a restorative experience, and building family cohesiveness. At the highly-developed campground, campers most frequently mentioned building family cohesiveness, escape from work and routines
back home, spending time with family, and restoring mind and body.
Impacts
These initial findings suggest that the number and type of facilities and amenities provided at forest campgrounds do not change the basic meaning of camping. Larger campgrounds designed for more economic efficiencies have also not changed the basic values of forest camping. Camping in all types of forest campgrounds is, however, a very social and family-oriented activity. Learning about nature and experiencing nature appear to be of secondary importance. Forest managers may need to offer more nature programs directed at the family to encourage more nature-based experiences.
Publications
- Roggenbuck, J. W. 2005. Managing for primitive recreation in wilderness. International Journal of Wilderness (In press).
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