| Thermal Regulation with Salt Hydrates for Biodigester Isothermality | 1025901 | 07/01/2021 | 07/31/2022 | COMPLETE | Lancaster | Anaerobic Digestion, Phase Change Material, Small Farms, Intermittent Heat Source, Isothermality | To solve the digester thermal control problem, Advanced Cooling Technologies (ACT) is developing an energy storage material that can be wrapped around a digester. This material will absorb thermal energy from the sun during the day and release it to the digestate at night. The energy storage materials are very inexpensive but there are some challenges related to their long-term use. Fortunately, the project team has successfully solved these issues during past projects. Laboratory testing will be used to demonstrate the life of the developed materials followed by testing on a small biodigester for several months. By the end of the project, ACT hopes to demonstrate a low-cost, small-scale, biodigester which will allow many more small farms to take advantage of this renewable energy source. This will accelerate the transition to renewable energy sources, helping to minimize the ecological damage created by our current energy generation mix.? | The goal of this Phase 1 project is to increase the biogas production potential of small-scale anaerobic digesters (AD) without significant increases in system cost and/or complexity. If successful, this technology has the potential to make AD technology economically viable for small farms, increasing utilization of this renewable energy source. The technical goal of this project is to develop and successfully test a working small-scale anaerobic digester (AD) with passive thermal control across multiple seasons - especially the winter. AD bacteria require a stable, relatively warm digestate temperature to maximize their biogas generation rate. This is a challenge in small ADs where rapid ambient temperature changes and cold wintertime temperatures can easily deactivate the efficacy of the bacteria. This project will fix this problem by adding a low-cost phase change material (PCM) around the AD, which will act as a thermal buffer to rapid temperature changes. The PCM also serves as a thermal energy store that can absorb solar thermal energy during the day and release it into the AD throughout the night, forming a passive solar heating system that can maintain the digestate temperature throughout the winter. The development and performance demonstration of this passively heated and temperature-controlled AD is the primary goal of the project.The following objectives present a pathway to achieving the Phase 1 goal:Selection and thermal reliability testing of a hydrated salt PCM. A PCM that demonstrates a pathway to 25+ year performance through accelerated freeze/thaw tests is targeted. The PCM has a material cost target of ~$0.1/kg.Model, design, and fabricate a sub-scale proof-of-concept AD utilizing the selected PCM for passive thermal control. A system design that can be easily fabricated from inexpensive and widely available components is targeted.Successfully test the sub-scale AD with PCM thermal control and simulated solar heating over several months during the coldest seasons of the year. A daily digestate temperature variation of no more than ±2°C is targeted during passive solar heating of the digestor with integrated PCM thermal storage.Prepare an economic assessment of the proposed AD with passive solar heating and PCM thermal control. If a pathway towards the LCOG goal of $0.30/m3 is not realized in the Phase I prototype system, variations to the current design will be proposed for additional cost reductions to be examined experimentally during Phase II. |
| Collaborative Research: SitS NSF-UKRI: Dynamic coupling of soil structure and gas fluxes measured with distributed sensor systems: implications for carbon modeling | 1020619 | 09/01/2019 | 08/31/2025 | ACTIVE | GOLDEN | gas exchange, greenhouse gas emissions, soil moisture, soil sensors, soil structure, soil monitoring, in-situ soil sensors, fiber optic | Organic carbon content and soil texture/compositions have the greatest effect on soil structure (aggregates and cracks) as well as the greatest impact on soil properties and function. Understanding carbon loading from soil-vegetation systems to the atmosphere is of critical importance to assess climate change drivers. Long-term experiments show that the content of soil organic carbon (SOC) is the result of a balance between the inputs and outputs of organic C. The main C inputs are plant roots and root exudates, above-ground plant residues and manures or other organic by-products . The outputs are the decomposition of organic matter by soil microorganisms and fauna leading to evolution of CO2 to the atmosphere (or CH4 under anaerobic conditions), leaching of soluble organic C compounds and particulate losses through erosion . Decomposition is normally the dominant output process and is controlled by clay content, temperature, moisture content and oxygen availability within the soil. Soils with a higher content of clay-sized particles, or higher cation exchange capacity, normally move towards a higher equilibrium content of organic C than sandy soil due to their greater capacity for stabilizing microbial metabolites . The clay and organic matter content also determine the shrinkage characteristics and hence how soil structure changes during the annual cycles of wetting and drying.An obstacle to progress our understanding of soil is a lack of spatio temporal data measured at high resolutionat field scales.This projectis to address this gap by intergrating spatially-distributed fiber optic sensing technology and in-ground WSN technologyto measure spatio temporal changes in fluxes of gaseous N2O, CO2, CH4 and O2, as well as soil strainwhich will be used to infer soil structural change.Spatially distributed measurement technology, based on the use of buried fiber optics and wireless sensornetwork sensors, have been commonly used in civil engineering. They can be used to measure strain anddepending on the coating over the fiber, water content and the concentrations of various gases includingO2, CO2, N2O and CH4. Such technology has considerable potential for use in agriculture,environmental and other vegetation monitoring, where typically sensors are point based (e.g. soil watercontent) and sampled manually. While gas emissions from soil can be measured at the field scale usingmicrometeorological techniques, the spatial distribution of emissions from the field is not known. Thepurpose of this project is to apply the spatially-distributed sensing technology used by civil engineers toagricultural and the natural environment. | The primary goal of this research is to develop two in-situ sensor systems that measure in-ground gas concentrations and strain/moisture/temperature/suction at relevant scales in the field to provide data on the dynamics of gas flux and soil structure. We propose to develop, deploy and test two distributed sensor systems for multi-scale soil condition monitoring because current approaches to sensing soil properties are point-based and cannot be sensibly used to obtain spatial patterns in the sensed variables. The proposed distributed fiber optic sensor system will provide wide-coverage data of (i) strain, (ii) temperature and (iii) selected gases, whereas the proposed in-ground mesh-based WSN system that utilizes magnetic induction-electromagnetic communication will measure (i) moisture, (ii) suction, (iii) temperature and (iv) selected gases.This project is a collaboration between three institutions: (1) University of California at Berkeley (UCB), (2) Colorado School of Mines (CSM), and (3) Rothamsted Research (RR), UK.The research is organized under six work packages.The project is planned under four broad tasks with specific objectives: (1) design and development of the integrated sensing systems, (2) testing the system under highly controlled conditions in a laboratory test system, (3) field deployment and modeling. The research tasks 1 and 2 that are primarily led by the two collaborating PIs at UCB and RR. The objectives of those two tasks are briefly presented. The USDA component of the funding assigned to the CSM PI primarily supports the second task involving the laboratory testing. More details on purpose, planned achievements, and milestones related to this task are provided. The overlapping activities among these three tasks are presented under methods in a later section.Sensing systemDistributed fiber optic sensing (DFOS) is well adapted by the civil, oil and gas industry for strain, temperature, and acoustic monitoring applications, as it is one of the emerging technologies that take measurements at the meter-to-kilometer scale. The objective of this research task is to utilize the 15+ year experience on DFOS development at UCB, to develop two novel DFOS systems that measure strain/temperature changes of soil structure and (ii) soil gas concentration, at every 2 cm interval for more than 5 km length of fiber optic cable. To realize the multiscale monitoring concept promoted in this project, the meter-to-kilometer scale DFOS system will be used in combination with an innovative in-ground mesh-based wireless sensor network (WSN) system that provides local point measurements in a spatially distributed manner. Low power sensors to be used by RR will be implemented into the in-ground WSN system currently prototyped at UCB.Laboratory testingThe overall objective of this task is before conducting field validation studies at pilot scales, an approach that uses is proposed to test the developed integrated sensing system an intermediate-scale laboratory system.The intermediate-scale testing will be carried out at the closed-circuit, low-velocity climate-controlled (wind speed, temperature, relative humidity) porous media-wind tunnel operated by theCenter for Experimental Study of Subsurface Environmental Processes(CESEP) at the Colorado School of Mines (CSM). The primary advantage of intermediate-scale experimentation (generally defined as an intermediary between lab column and field scales with a maximum length of 10 m) is the ability for field-scale processes to be mimicked under highly controlled conditions.The objectives, expected results, and the milestones in each of the sub-tasks are summarized.Test method development - 6 monthsIn our past research using this test system, we have studied problems that involve mass and heat flux across the land/atmospheric interphase that couples atmospheric boundary layer to a porous medium.The objective of this research task is to develop testing methods specifically applicable to the soil sensing application.The measurements that need to be made include (1) soil moisture distribution, (2) soil temperature, (3) wind velocity, (4) humidity, and (5) gas concentration.Preliminary proof of concept experiments - 6 monthsThe objective of this task is to conduct a preliminary set of experiments under scenarios that are expected in the field.The experiments will be conducted using two types of test soils. In our past experiments, we have used sands whose hydraulic characteristics such as hydraulic conductivity, soil retention functions, relative permeability, and thermal conductivity have been determined.We propose to use silty soil from a field site in Colorado. As a part of this task, we will determine soil hydraulic and thermal characteristics. The test tank will be filled using the test soils. As at this stage the sensors that are developed at UCB are not available, we will use existing sensors in the test facility to run experiments to simulate expected field scenarios.Distributed sensor installation - 6 monthsAs the distributed sensor development at UCB will be in progress, it will not be possible to install a fully operational system in the test facility.The objective of this task is to complete a step vise installation and testing process of the sensing systems that are under development at UCB. Once the preliminary testing of each of the component of the integrated system is completed, we will work with the UCB collaborators to install the system in a CSM test tank. This testing of different components will be an iterative process as improvements to the design may have to be made based on the individual component testing.Laboratory testing of the integrated sensing system - 18 monthsThe objective of this task is the installation of the fully integrated sensing system in the laboratory testbed and conduct all the necessary tests before field deployment in at the site in the UK. The final experimental plan will depend on the methods, achievable soil-moisture controls, optimal vegetation distributions, and parameter sensitivities determined in WP1. The individual experiments will vary with respect to the following: (1) monolith depth; (2) grass cover at land-atmosphere interfaces; (4) land surfaces with micro-topographic features; (5) precipitation rates; (6) wind speed; and (7) humidity. The duration of the experiments will depend on many factors such as plant growth and soil-moisture control. Determination of the final configuration that will be optimal in the context of reliability, robustness, and accuracy will be a part of the testing strategy.This task will be closely corradiated with the UCB and FF collaborators to identify all issues and problems related to field installation. |
| The Science and Engineering for a Biobased Industry and Economy | 1020193 | 10/01/2019 | 09/30/2021 | COMPLETE | MADISON | dairy manure, nanocellulose, paper coating | Agriculture faces a challenging future due to soil degradation, water quality, and scarcity problems, and climate change impacts driven by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Concurrently, growing populations will continue to drive food demand and, thus, land and farm productivity. Farmers historically responded to demand increases with expansion and intensification, often at the expense of environmental sustainability. The ongoing shift in livestock-crop systems toward consolidation, compounded by decreases in agricultural land has created local areas of imbalance between the cropping and animal systems. With rapidly depleting ecosystem services, it will be critical to adopt agricultural practices which can meet these demands more sustainably. One practice that is of interest is finding more valuable uses of dairy manure to improve profitability and improve nutrient management.The current value-added uses of dairy manure are largely limited to use biochemical processes such as anaerobic digestion and fermentation to produce biomethane and bioethanol and to use thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis and gasification to produce bio-oil, biochar and combustible gases. Moreover, the biochemical process can only utilize part of cellulose and hemicellulose in dairy manure; while the thermochemical process typically requires high temperature. In general, these processes primarily produce relatively low value-added products such as methane and ethanol. Therefore, there is a critical need for additional research devoted to developing new efficient, economically feasible and environmentally benign approaches to tackle the underutilization problem of dairy manure and help enhance farmer benefits and agricultural sustainability.Dairy manures (undigested and anaerobically digested) are abundant, aggregrated, and low-cost lignocellulosic resources as compared to others like wood. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) inventory reported that the number of dairy cows is currently about 9.40 million. In average, dairy cattle can produce about 12 gal of manure per 1000 lb. live weight per day with 14.4 lb. total solids. It was estimated that more than 110 million tons of animal manure are annually produced in the United States. Dairy manure is enriched in cellulose (about 20% - 35%), depending on the diet of cow, separation, process method and conditions of anaerobic digestion if the manure is processed in a digester.Anaerobic digestion systems for dairy farms are growing in popularity across the United States, which can yield a significant mass of cellulose fibers. The anaerobically digested fiber typically contains about 35% cellulose, 9% hemicellulose (xylose, galactose, arabinose and mannose) and 28% lignin, which accounts for approximately 40% of the anaerobic digested effluent total solid.This fiber can be an important low-cost source for value-added products. However, most of the anaerobically digested cellulose fibers is currently underutilized as soil amendment or animal bedding.Previous studies have considered using the carbohydrates in dairy manure to produce monomeric sugars which can be further upgraded into fuel ethanol and other value-added chemicals. However, our studies and others have shown that enzymes can only partially convert cellulose fibers in dairy manure to fermentable sugars due to high levels of ash and lignin both which are enzymatic inhibitors. Instead this research looks to use the cellulose in the manure fibers to produce nanocellulose materials.Nanocellulose materials are nanometer-sized fibers obtained from lignocellulosic biomass obtained from either hydrolysis of cellulose in concentrated acid solution (typically sulfuric or hydrochloric acid) or obtained by mechanical fibrillation of cellulose, or a combination of chemical or enzymatic treatment and mechanical fibrillation of cellulose. Numerous uses for nanocellulose materials have been proposed, including incorporation in fiber-reinforced polymer composites, substrates for flexible electronics and organic solar cells, coatings, membrane systems, and networks for tissue engineering.One of the most promising early uses of nanocellulose materials is in the papermaking industry. These materials may be incorporated as a binder material to improve the strength properties of paper.Nanocellulose can also serve as a renewable and sustainable alternative to synthetic latex and binders in most coating formulation to improve the barrier properties. Finally, cellulose nanofiber can be directly made into cellulose nanopaper, which can surpass ordinary paper in the mechanical, optical and barrier properties and can be used for many high-tech applications such as flexible energy storage and conversion devices, and printed flexible electronics.There is a critical need for additional research devoted to developing new efficient, economically feasible and environmentally benign approaches to tackle the underutilization problem of dairy manure and help enhance farmer benefits and agricultural sustainability. The proposed research will address the underutilization challenge of dairy manure and anaerobically digested dairy manure via effectively extracting nanocellulose products and exploring these materials in paper coating applications. This research will advance the utilization of manure waste generated in an agricultural system and improve sustainable agriculture. | (1) Research and develop technically feasible, economically viable and environmentally sustainable technologies to convert biomass resources into chemicals, energy, materials in a biorefinery methodology including developing co-products to enable greater commercialization potential. |
| NRI: INT: COLLAB: Rumen Understanding through Millipede-Engineered Navigation and Sensing (RUMENS) | 1018631 | 03/01/2019 | 02/29/2024 | COMPLETE | UNIVERSITY PARK | Agriculture, Design, Mechanisms, Planning, Locomotion, Societal Impact | Just as NASA used the remotely operated vehicles (ROV) Spirit and Opportunity to gather and relay information that continues to broaden understanding of Mars, this program will develop ROVs that will transform our knowledge of rumen biology and fermentation chemistry. The rumen is one of the primary digestive chambers in the stomach of a ruminant animal, such as a cow. Although the cow rumen is a very specific environment, improving our ability to study this ecosystem provides notable opportunity to enhance understanding of fermentation, food production, and energy generation, not just within cattle but within anaerobic fermentation environments in general. Rumen microorganisms are some of the world's most efficient fermenters of fibrous materials high in cellulose; however, only a fraction of the species in the rumen microbiome have been sequenced or cultured. The rumen ecosystem is a complex heterogeneous environment stratified vertically and horizontally that contains myriad specialized microclimates caused by differing density of feed particles and O2 concentrations, among other factors. These microclimates are believed to create optimal environments for unique microbial species that may have differing fermentation capacity, and the stratification within the rumen may be one cause for difficulty in culturing many of these microorganisms outside the animal. Cattle provide a unique model organism for studying anaerobic fermentation not only because of their individualized fiber fermentation capabilities but also because their size allows for surgical procedures that enable unique research access directly into the rumen. Traditionally, the insertion point for the rumen ROV is through the cannula, a surgically placed port through the side of the animal into the upper portion of the rumen. Although manual sampling through the cannula is the industry standard, it is not ideal because it is thought to disturb the rumen environment by introducing O2 and mixing rumen contents. An indwelling rumen ROV would not have these limitations and would enhance the opportunity to link specific microbial species with physical location and chemical characteristics in the rumen. This improved understanding will not only lead to advancements in rumen biology and efficiency of meat and milk production, but will also enhance our understanding of fermentation chemistry, microbiology, and could potentially lead to new species identification for use in biofuel production and other key industrial endpoints. Furthermore, if widely adopted, the ROV would enable investigation of rumen microbiomes that will scale across multiple animals, multiple laboratories, and multiple herds, enabling a big-data-fueled secondary community of investigators. The proposed research addresses the NRI-2.0 program goals of scalability by providing animal agriculture robots for monitoring and sampling the rumen environment that will impact a variety of animals (e.g., cows, sheep, goats) and opening opportunity for farmers to improve food production efficiency, safety and quality. Further, the program will utilize innovative approaches for developing and delivering robotics into animal science curricula (such integration does not currently exist) and to impact a large group of second year undergraduates across multiple colleges. | NRI: INT: COLLAB: Rumen Understanding through Millipede-Engineered Navigation and Sensing (RUMENS), Dr. Shashank Priya, The Pennsylvania State University. The proposed research addresses the NRI-2.0 program goal of scalability by articulating a plan for the evelopment, manufacturing, testing, and deployment of remotely operated agricultural robots capable of navigating difficult terrain and collecting and storing biological samples. The work has impacts on food production, safety, and quality. Although the example ecosystem proposed within this work is specific (the cow rumen), improving our ability to study this ecosystem will provide notable opportunity to nhance understanding of fermentation, food production, and energy production. Inability to sample the rumen environment nondisruptively limits our understanding of the interplay between diet, rumen tissues, and rumen microorganisms. Poor sample collection also precludes dentification of microbial species present in unique microclimates within the rumen which may be critical to our overall understanding of uminant metabolism and efficiency of fiber fermentation. Development of robots that can navigate through the rumen environment while measuring and sampling both rumen tissue and rumen content has been highly challenging. In addressing these challenges, wireless rumens remotely operated vehicles (rumens ROV) will be demonstrated with desired locomotion, power, and localization characteristics.The rumens ROV will be deployed on top of the fiber mat through existing rumen cannulae. Once through the fiber mat, rumen ROV will deploy novel traveling wave locomotion proposed in this program to move towards the station-keeping location in reticulum while taking advantage of the compression currents. When desired, the rumen ROV will "wake up" and navigate to the location of interest by combining magnetic localization techniques, image guidance, inertial measurement unit, and piezoelectric motor actuated traveling wave locomotion. Multilayer textured piezoelectric ceramic based actuators will be deployed to provide optimum combination of stroke and force. Combination of multiple actuators with cyclic actuation pattern and phase difference will result in traveling wave. Data transfer from the robot to a wearable neck collar on the cow will be achieved through a body area network. Battery power of the robot will be supplemented with magnetoelectric energy mechanism where external magnetic fields can be converted into electricity. The rumens ROV evaluation will be conducted in a laboratory test vat until the ROV meets defined performance criteria. The ROV will then be deployed in cattle. The in-animal evaluations will compare ROV sensed metrics with samples collected using current industry standards. |
| Role of roast and storage conditions on chemical and biological characteristics of cold brew coffee | 1018488 | 02/15/2019 | 02/14/2023 | COMPLETE | PHILADELPHIA | chemistry, coffee, food safety, storage, cold brew | Cold brew coffee is a popular new brewing trend with a market growth of 580% from 2011 to 2016. Cold brew coffee is made through a low-temperature, long-contact brewing method where grinds are soaked with room temperature water (~25C) for 8 to 24 hours. Despite its growing popularity, very little research has been published on cold brew coffee chemistry.A range of online health and lifestyle blogs have published recipes and specific health claims for cold brew coffee without scientific basis. Further, nitro-cold brew coffee is a boutique cold brew beverage that is infused with nitrogen and has a mouthfeel similar to some craft beers. However, the introduction of nitrogen creates an anaerobic environment conducive to botulin toxin development. This research aims to establish a foundational understanding of some key chemical metrics of both traditional and nitro infused cold brew coffees. Total acidity, pH, 3-chlorogenic acid and caffeine concentrations, antioxidant capacity, and flavor will be measured for cold brew coffee extracts using three type of roasts. The presences and survivability of spoilage microorganisms will be analyzed during and after the brewing process in both traditional and nitro cold brew coffee. The immediate output of this project is to expand the understanding of cold brew coffee chemistry, including the survivability of spoilage microorganisms. The outcomes for this project are to educate coffee consumer about the cold brew coffee and to aid health officials in developing food safety inspection protocols. The ultimate goal is to Improve the best practice standards in cold brew coffee industry to provide better and safer experience to all consumers. | This proposed work will yield important chemical and biological information about traditional and nitro-infused coffee that will be pertinent to home-brewers, retail vendors, RTD producers, and perhaps most importantly, coffee consumers. Given the significant growth in the cold brew coffee market, the potential importance of coffee's bioactive compounds on human health, and the potential food safety concerns in both the United States and Canada, this proposal seeks to investigate CGA and caffeine concentrations, pH and total acidity, total antioxidant activity, and presence/detection of botulinum in both traditional cold brew and nitro infused cold brew coffee brewed from a single-source coffee bean. This research will monitor these key characteristics for three different roasts over a three week storage period.This project is congruent with the AFRI Foundational and Applied Science Program area of food safety, nutrition, and health. Specifically, the project will address the program area priority of improving food quality. The knowledge gained in this project will provide consumers with scientifically based information about cold brew coffee so they can make informed decisions about their consumption habits. The project will also provide critical information for brewers and food safety specialist to facilitate new production and inspection standards to ensure the safety of the product.Aim 1a:The project will investigate how degree of roast affects the key chemical attributes of cold brewed coffee including concentration of CGA, concentration of caffeine, total acidity, pH,total antioxidant activity, and flavor profile by analyzing single-source beans processed at three different roasting temperatures: light (180°C - 205°C), medium (210°C - 220°C), and dark (240°C - 250°C).Aim 1b:The project will investigate changes in key chemical attributes that may occur during storage. The analyses in Aim 1 will be repeated after coffees have been stored in either ambient conditions or under pressurized nitrogen for three weeks.Aim 2:The project will investigate the presence, survival, and growth of spoilage microorganisms, specifically Cl. botulinum in both traditional and nitro-infused cold brew coffee during the brewing process and throughout the three week storage period. |
| Water and Nutrient Recycling: A Decision Tool and Synergistic Innovative Technology | 1016509 | 08/01/2018 | 07/31/2025 | ACTIVE | Fayetteville | decision support tool, life cycle assessment, nutrient recycling, water recycling, crop viability | The combination of continued global population growth, with an additional 3 billion people over the next 40 years, and expected intensification of climate variability and resulting variability in reliable water resources requires that water recycling become an integrated part of agricultural water resource management. Further, important nutrients are lost to wastewaters but could be recycled and reused for food production. Absent a concerted effort to recycle these nutrients, the food supply demand will inherently create a less resilient agriculture industry. Water treatment and nutrient needs will vary geographically and based on production. Thus, a user-driven strategy for food production supported by wastewater and nutrient recycling inherently demands not only a systems-based approach, but a flexible decision-making approach. We will study innovative technology for liquid manure wastewater treatment and nutrient recovery within the framework of a decision-making tool that allows technology selection based on region-specific needs for water recycling and food production. The tool will be built upon an economic and life cycle assessment model that guides the user to technology selection based on user-based knowledge of soil chemistry, fertilization needs, crop selection, livestock production, desired level of wastewater treatment, water use, wastewater production, and regulatory requirements. | The overarching goal of this project is to create a decision-support tool that facilitates selection of liquid manure treatment technology based upon local agriculture needs and nutrient balance requirements.The technical innovation goal of this project is to apply robust, membrane-based electrochemical engineering technology, which has been developed and commercialized in the energy sector, to enable manure treatment and water/nutrient recycling for food production.The extension goal of this project is to engage stakeholders in the agricultural community and the water treatment technology industry to develop an understanding of water recycling technologies and the opportunities and challenges to implementation in the agricultural sector for treating liquid manure.Objectives Design and test electrochemical technology for treatment of and nutrient recovery from liquid manure.Study the impacts of recovered water/fertilizer on soil productivity and crop response.Evaluate economic costs and benefits of water treatment technologies related to liquid manure management and crop production.Develop a lifecycle assessment (LCA) model based on three regions: Nebraska, Arkansas, and Missouri.Develop a modular decision-support tool that guides users in water and nutrient recycling technology selection based upon specific regional and farm operational parameters.Engage agricultural and industrial stakeholders nationally on integrating the most locally robust manure treatment technology into agricultural production. |
| Developing a Vacuum Distillation- Acid Absorption System for Recovery of Ammonia from Dairy Manure | 1007832 | 09/04/2015 | 09/30/2015 | COMPLETE | ALBANY | ammonia, dairy manure, resource recovery, bio-based feedstock, concentrated animal feeding operations, waste to value | • Objective: Dairy farms generate 138 L liquid manure/cow, which has high ammonia concentrations and contributes to air and water pollution due to free ammonia release to air and nitrogen export to water at their production sites and manure-applied land.Anaerobically digested dairy manure has even higher ammonia concentrations. Besides, ammonia accumulation in digesters may inhibit anaerobic digestion at higher organic loading rates. Dairy farms need cost-effective methods to upgrade their nutrient management plans. Traditional wastewater treatment methods are economically prohibitive to remove ammonia from dairy manure. Our goal is to develop an innovative technology coupling vacuum distillation and acid absorption for sustainable recovery of ammonia from anaerobically digested and undigested dairy manure. Ammonia in dairy manure can be distilled under a low vacuum at a temperature below the normal boilingpoint of water and absorbed in a sulfuric acid solution to produce ammonium sulfate as a value-added product. Specific objectives are to 1) evaluate effects of temperature, low vacuum, and solids on ammonia recovery from dairy manure; 2) design an ammonia distillation - acid absorption system to produce ammonium sulfate granules with dairy manure; 3) construct a pilot-scale vacuum distillation - acid absorption system and develop operational parameters; and 4) perform a farm-scale economic analysis of the developed technology across its life cycle. This project will fill a literature gap in the combined effects of temperature, low vacuum, and solids on ammonia distillation. Kinetic study with a pilotscale ammonia recovery system at different feed depth will support design for scale-up,broader applications. Coupling vacuum distillation - acid absorption with anaerobic digestion is anticipated to make ammonia recovery an economically viable technology. The technology to be developed is applicable to dairy farms without anaerobic digesters as well.• Description: Concentrated animal feeding operations need cost-effective technologies to upgrade their nutrient management plans as required by increasingly stringent federal and state regulations. This project will develop a technology to produce a marketable productfrom dairy manure (ammonium sulfate granules as a bio-fertilizer and chemical), thus generating revenues while meeting regulatory requirements for farm nutrient management. By coupling ammonia recovery with anaerobic digestion and biogas energyutilization, heat is recycled, inhibition of ammonia to anaerobic digestion prevented, and greenhouse gas emission reduced. Three graduate students in this P3 team will develop knowledge and skills of sustainable design for wastewater treatment and resource recovery.Undergraduate students and high school students in a Boy Scouts Engineering Camp will gain hands-on skills with the pilot-scale ammonia recovery system and be inspired of sustainable waste management.• Results: A laboratory vacuum distillation - acid absorption assembly will be used to evaluate the efficiency and energy consumption of ammonia distillation under different combinations of temperature and low vacuum with digested and undigested dairy manure that have different salinities as well as manure filtrate. A pilot-scale ammonia recovery system will be operated by batch modes to prove the design concept and determine operational parameters including feed depth and cycle length. The pilot system will include a vacuum still for ammonia vaporization at boiling points lowered by low vacuum, an ammonia absorption column to produce ammonium sulfate granules, and a vacuum pump to bridge the still and absorption column. Cost benefit assessment across life cycle will be performed, taking a large-size dairy farm as an example.Contribution to Pollution Prevention and Control: Animal manure has 0.04-0.88% (wet weight) ammonia, which exists in free ammonia (NH3} and ionized ammonium (NH/). Volatilization of free ammonia may cause air pollution and health risks. Land application of liquid manure may impact on aquatic ecosystems and groundwater resources. Oxidation of ammonia generates greenhouse gas. In combination with anaerobic digestion, the proposed technology will provide dairy farms with a sustainable solution to nutrient management, minimizing the risk of ammonia release and nitrogen export. Ammonia recovery from dairy manure makes productive use of agricultural waste, thus preventing pollution associated with natural gas- and coal-based production of ammonia. The developed technology could also be applied to ammonia recovery from other ammonia-rich wastewater and coupled with anaerobic digestion of other organic wastes such as food waste and municipal sludge.Supplemental Keywords: bio-based feedstock, resource recovery; waste to value; concentrated animal feeding operationsAwarded Start Date: 8/15/2014Sponsor: Environmental Protection Agency | Dairy farms generate 138 L liquid manure/cow, which has high ammonia concentrations and contributes to air and water pollution due to free ammonia release to air and nitrogen export to water at their production sites and manure-applied land.Anaerobically digested dairy manure has even higher ammonia concentrations. Besides, ammonia accumulation in digesters may inhibit anaerobic digestion at higher organic loading rates. Dairy farms need cost-effective methods to upgrade their nutrient management plans. Traditional wastewater treatment methods are economically prohibitive to remove ammonia from dairy manure. Our goal is to develop an innovative technology coupling vacuum distillation and acid absorption for sustainable recovery of ammonia from anaerobically digested and undigested dairy manure. Ammonia in dairy manure can be distilled under a low vacuum at a temperature below the normal boiling point of water and absorbed in a sulfuric acid solution to produce ammonium sulfate as a value-added product. Specific objectives are to 1) evaluate effects of temperature, low vacuum, and solids on ammonia recovery from dairy manure; 2) design an ammoniadistillation - acid absorption system to produce ammonium sulfate granules with dairy manure; 3) construct a pilot-scale vacuum distillation - acid absorption system and develop operational parameters; and 4) perform a farm-scale economic analysis of the developedtechnology across its life cycle. This project will fill a literature gap in the combined effects of temperature, low vacuum, and solids on ammonia distillation. Kinetic study with a pilotscale ammonia recovery system at different feed depth will support design for scale-up,broader applications. Coupling vacuum distillation - acid absorption with anaerobic digestion is anticipated to make ammonia recovery an economically viable technology. The technology to be developed is applicable to dairy farms without anaerobic digesters as well. |
| Algae for conversion of manure nutrients to animal feed: Evaluation of advanced nutritional value, toxicity, and zoonotic pathogens | 1000956 | 09/01/2013 | 08/31/2017 | COMPLETE | Pomona | Algae, Animal Feed, Bacteria, Manure, Nutritional Value, Pathogens, Toxic Cyanobacteria | Rationale The need to control manure-derived nutrient pollution is straining the confined animal production industry. California is the top milk producing state and has some of the strictest nutrient regulations. But in the San Joaquin Valley, many dairies do not have affordable access to more land for manure application. A highly productive crop is needed that will convert manure nitrogen (N) and phosphate (P) into feed but in smaller land areas than crops such as corn. Algae are a candidate feed with annual yields typically 7-13 times greater than soy or corn. Beyond 40-50% protein, algae also contain fatty acids, amino acids, pigments, and vitamins that are valuable in animal feeds, especially for adding value to milk. Advances in molecular biology allow us to gather needed information on the risks and benefits of algae-based animal feeds. Overall goal Benefit animal agriculture and the environment by introducing microalgae as a fast-growing livestock feed crop. Aim 1 Cultivate algae in dairy freestall barn flush water, treating this wastewater, while producing algae feedstock at a high annual rate, at least 10-times greater than corn. Algae will be cultivated in 30-cm deep raceway ponds at the 300-head Cal Poly campus dairy farm where extensive manure management research already occurs under USDA and USEPA sponsorship. Aim 2 Produce algae with favorable nutritional characteristics (high digestibility, valuable fatty and amino acid profiles, balanced protein and carbohydrate concentration, etc.) by adjusting the treated-water recycling into the ponds to optimize the N concentration in the growth medium. Aim 3 Test pathogen survival in algae feeds prepared by pasteurization and/or drying and heating. A trend in municipal wastewater treatment is pasteurization of treated effluent using waste heat from natural gas electrical generator. Large dairies with digesters will have waste heat available for pasteurization and drying. High-protein algae will be pelletized with high carbohydrate feeds to create a balanced feed. The heat of pelletization also contributes to pasteurization. Cal Poly has a research feed mill for producing such blended feeds. Aim 4 Monitor contamination by cyanobacteria and any cyanobacterial toxins. Approach Removal of N, P, and other constituents will be optimized in influent and effluent of identical ponds. Algal biomass (harvested by bioflocculation+settling) will be analyzed for N, P, protein, carbohydrates, and profiles of fatty and amino acids. Pathogen and algal communities extant in raw and feed-processed algal biomass will be analyzed using metagenomics and pyrosequencing. Potential toxicity of algal biomass will be studied using toxicity evaluation of cell-free extracts on cultured mammalian cells. A TC 20 Cell counter (BioRad Laboratories) will be used to monitor toxicity events on treated cells using trypan blue staining. Cytotoxic positive samples will be tested for both presence and concentration of known cyanobacterial toxins. The researchers have decades' experience in algae production, wastewater treatment, and food safety. Expected outcomes Starting with dairy, the project will lead the way towards an algae feed industry based on advanced nutritional features to enhance agricultural products (e.g., milk protein, poultry pigment) while assisting farmers to meet manure management challenges. We will address topics rarely covered in the algae field: potential toxicity and zoonotic pathogens. Our approach is unique in that it integrates and addresses a triad of issues, namely, food safety issues along with algae production techniques and waste management. | Project Goals 1. Generate experimental field data and calibrate optimization models. For treatment, expected removals are 85-95% biochemical oxygen demand and soluble Nitrogen (N) and 40-80% solublePhosphate (P) removal, depending on culturing technique and season. 2. Maximize the nutritional value of produced algae for animal feed. The cultures will be optimized to produce biomass at a high rate while also having the highest value composition for feed (in terms of lipids, digestibility, essential fatty and amino acid profiles, including balanced protein and carbohydrate concentrations). 3. Optimize pathogen inactivation methods. Pathogens will die-off in the ponds and during disinfection processing of the harvested biomass. Inactivation rates for representative pathogen indicators will be determined under various algae cultivation conditions and during trials with several biomass disinfection techniques. The optimal combination of pond conditions (e.g., high pH) and biomass processing (e.g., pasteurization) will be determined to achieve needed log inactivation of pathogens, which is typically 1- >4 log10 reduction (Sobsey et al., Available Online). 4. Quantify and control any cyanobacterial toxins. qPCR assays described by Al-Tarineh et al. (2012 a and b) will be used and optimized to reliably determine the copy number of cyanotoxin biosynthesis genes, as well as an internal cyanobacteria 16S rDNA control, in a single reaction. The latter detects for presence of cyanobacteria. If toxins are detected, measures will be taken to control invasion of the ponds by cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria strains. Overall Goal Benefit agriculture and the environment by introducing microalgae, a fast-growing livestock feed crop. |
| Improving the Sustainability and Quality of Food and Dairy Products from Manufacturing to Consumption via Process Modeling and Edible Packaging | 0438139 | 04/13/2020 | 11/30/2021 | COMPLETE | WYNDMOOR | MILK, CASEIN, DAIRY, ECONOMICS, CLIMATE, CHANGE, WASTE, STREAMS, ENERGY, USE, ELECTROSPINNING, MICRON, SCALE, CHEESE, WHEY, QUALITY, GREENHOUSE, GASES, WATER, RECOVERY, SIMULATION, MODEL, EDIBLE, FILMS, AND, COATING, NANOTECHNOLOGY, SHELF, LIFE | Not applicable | 1: Integrate new processes into the Fluid Milk Process Model (FMPM) to determine the effects of reductions in energy use, water use or waste on commercial dairy plant economics and greenhouse gas emissions. 1a: Develop benchmark simulations for configurations of stirred, set and strained curd yogurt processing plants in the U.S. that quantify energy use, economics, and greenhouse gas emissions, validated using data from industry. 1b: Use process simulation for evaluation of possible alternatives of whey utilization for the strained curd method of yogurt manufacture. 2: Integrate properties of edible films and coatings from dairy and food processing wastes with formulation strategies to better target commercial food and nonfood applications. 2a: Investigate thermal and mechanical properties of dairy protein-based edible films and coatings in real-life storage and utilization conditions. 2b: Apply new property findings to the investigation of useful and/or sustainable applications utilizing edible milk protein films. 3: Investigate the effects of different film-making technologies to manipulate the physical and functional properties of films and coatings made from agricultural materials. 3a: Investigate the effect of protein conformation on the ability to electrospin caseinates in aqueous solution and in the presence of a polysaccharide. 3b: Investigate the use of fluid milk, nonfat dry milk and milk protein concentrates as a source for production of electrospun fibers. 3c: Investigate the effects of edible and non-edible additives to the electrospun polysaccharide-caseinate fibers in aqueous solution. 4. Investigate techniques for separating components of dairy waste to determine their potential as ingredients. [C1,PS1A] 5. Investigate technologies for large-scale production of the ingredients identified in Objective 4, with products targeted to food applications. [C1, PS1A]. |
| Attaining High Quality Soft White Winter Wheat through Optimal Management of Nitrogen, Residue and Soil Microbes | 0435472 | 09/06/2018 | 09/05/2023 | COMPLETE | PENDLETON | INLAND, PACIFIC, NORTHWEST, DRYLAND, NITROGEN, REPLACEMENT, PRECISION, NITROGEN, MANAGEMENT, NEAR, INFRARED, SPECTROSCOPY, GRAIN, PROTEIN, CONCENTRATION, GRAIN, QUALITY, MICROBIAL, COMMUNITIES, BACTERIA, FUNGI, NUTRIENT, CYCLING, DROUGHT, STRESS, WATER, AVAILABILITY | Not applicable | Obj. 1: Extend the N replacement approach to soft white winter wheat for guiding precision management of fertilizer N and crop residue to optimize soil microbial processes and maximize the biological potential of soil. 1A: Evaluate grain protein concentration and yield response to N under varying levels of water to define the critical protein level and fertilizer N equivalent to a unit change in protein for popular cultivars of soft white winter wheat. 1B: Determine whether uniformity of protein levels in the crop can be achieved with the precision N replacement approach. 1C: Adapt instruments and algorithms to support on-farm implementation of the N replacement approach to precision fertilizer management in dryland wheat production systems. 1D: Evaluate the effects of residue management (standing, distributed on the soil surface, or removed) on the plant-available N, precipitation capture efficiency, crop productivity, weed density, and microbial activity during the 13 months of fallow. Obj. 2: Identify whether soil microbial communities adapted to dry environments benefit plant fitness under water limited conditions. 2A: Identify the composition of microbial consortia naturally adapted to low water availability. 2B: Determine whether cultivar selection and N management can be manipulated to shift the structure and function of microbial communities to benefit plants under water stress. Obj. 3. Develop resilient cropping systems and strategies that increase resilience, improve economic returns, and enhance ecosystem services; assess their economic and environmental performance of various cropping systems in concert with their supporting components; and develop decision support systems for optimizing agronomic production in these cropping systems. 3A: Compare economic returns from the variable N replacement approach based on previous seasonâ¿¿s site-specific SWW crop yield data and conventional uniform N placement based on field bulk soil sampling and laboratory testing. 3B: Increase dryland farming resilience by developing cropping systems more intensive and diverse than the conventional winter wheat-fallow system. 3C: Investigate the yields and economic returns of alternative crops following winter wheat and winter wheat following cover crops across low and intermediate precipitation zones using current and future climate scenarios. Obj. 4. Increase the sustainability resilience and tolerance of the dryland crop production system to biotic and abiotic stressors through improved understanding of developmental, environmental, and management factors that limit plant health and growth, including but not limited to stress tolerance, water use efficiency, and disease resistance. 4A: Evaluate stress indicators and yield components of wheat in alternative cropping systems compared to wheat-fallow with relation to soil water availability, disease incidence, and rotational crop morphology. 4B: Investigate crop response to water deficit, high temperature, and/or nitrogen availability. |
| Sorghum Biorefining: Integrated Processes for Converting all Sorghum Feedstock Components to Fuels and Co-Products | 0427783 | 10/29/2014 | 10/28/2019 | ACTIVE | WYNDMOOR | SWEET, SORGHUM, GRAIN, SORGHUM, BIOMASS, SORGHUM, ETHANOL, BUTANOL, PLATFORM, CHEMICALS, VALUE-ADDED, CO-PRODUCTS, CELLULOSE, HEMICELLULOSE, LIGNIN, METHANE, BIOREFINERY | Not applicable | 1: Develop technologies that enable the integrated processing of sorghum grains and sweet sorghum juice at existing biofuels production facilities and that enable the commercial production of new co-products at sorghum-based biorefineries. 1A: Develop technologies that enable the integrated processing of sorghum grains at existing biofuels production facilities. 1B: Develop technologies that enable the integrated processing of sweet sorghum juice at existing biofuels production facilities. 1C: Develop technologies that enable the commercial production of new co-products at sorghum-based biorefineries. 2: Develop technologies that enable the commercial production of marketable C5-rich and C6-rich sugar streams from sorghum lignocellulosic components. 2A: Develop technologies that enable the commercial production of marketable C5-rich sugar streams from sorghum lignocellulosic components. 2B: Develop technologies that enable the commercial production of marketable C6-rich sugar streams from sorghum lignocellulosic components. 3: Develop technologies that enable the commercial conversion of sorghum lignocellulosic components into fuels and industrial chemicals. 3A: Develop technologies that enable the commercial production of industrial chemicals from the C5-rich sugar stream obtained from the enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated sorghum cellulosic components. 3B: Develop technologies that enable the commercial production of additional ethanol and industrial chemicals from the C6-rich sugar stream obtained from the enzymatic hydrolysis of the cellulose-enriched residue. 3C: Develop technologies that enable the use of byproducts and wastes generated in ethanol and other fermentation processes in the sorghum biorefinery for production of energy and chemicals. |
| Enable New Marketable, Value-added Coproducts to Improve Biorefining Profitability | 0427684 | 09/08/2014 | 09/07/2019 | ACTIVE | WYNDMOOR | COPRODUCTS, BIOFUELS, ETHANOL, SORGHUM, BIODIESEL, CELLULOSE, HEMICELLULOSE, BRAN, GUMS | Not applicable | 1. Develop processes to fractionate sorghum and corn/sorghum oils into new commercially-viable coproducts. 2. Develop processes to fractionate grain-derived brans into new commercially-viable coproducts. 2a: Develop processes to fractionate grain-derived brans into new commercially-viable coproducts such as lipid-based coproducts and for other industrial uses such as extrusion or producing energy or fuel. 2b: Develop commercially-viable, value-added carbohydrate based co-products from sorghum brans and the brans derived from other grains during their biorefinery process. 3. Develop processes to fractionate biorefinery-derived celluloses and hemicelluloses into new commercially-viable coproducts. 3a: Develop commercially-viable, value-added hemicellulose based co-products from sorghum biomass, sorghum bagasse and other agricultural based biomasses produced during their biorefining. 3b: Develop commercially-viable, value-added cellulose based co-products from sorghum biomass, sorghum bagasse and other agricultural based biomasses produced during their biorefining. 4. Develop technologies that enhance biodiesel quality so as to enable greater market supply and demand for biodiesel fuels and >B5 blends in particular. 4a: Improve the low temperature operability of biodiesel by chemical modification of the branched-chain fatty acids. 4b: Develop technologies that significantly reduce quality-related limitations to market growth of biodiesel produced from trap and float greases. 4c: Further develop direct (in situ) biodiesel production so as to enable its commercial deployment. 5. Develop technologies that enable the commercial production of new products and coproducts at lipid-based biorefineries. 5a: Enable the commercial production of alkyl-branched from agricultural products and food-wastes. 5b: Enable the commercial production of aryl-branched fatty acids produced from a combination of lipids and natural antimicrobials possessing phenol functionalities. |
| Technologies for Improving Industrial Biorefineries that Produce Marketable Biobased Products | 0427427 | 10/01/2014 | 09/30/2019 | COMPLETE | ALBANY | BIOPRODUCTS, BIOENERGY, SORGHUM, BIOMASS, POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES, POLYSACCHARIDES, BIOMASS, ENZYMES, FIBERS, COMBINATORIAL, CHEMISTRY, DIRECTED, EVOLUTION, NANOTECHNOLOGY, NANO-ASSEMBLIES, CELLULOSE, PECTIN, DIACIDS, POLYMERS, POLY(HYDROXYBUTYRATE), PHA, BIOFUELS, CITRUS, ALMONDS, EXTRACTION, RENEWABLE, FERMENTATION, BIOREFINERY, FOOD, WASTE, ENZYMES | Not applicable | This project provides technological solutions to the biofuels industry to help the U.S. meet its Congressionally mandated goal of doubling advanced biofuels production within the next decade. The overall goal is to develop optimal strategies for converting agricultural biomass to biofuels and to create value-added products (bioproducts) that improve the economics of biorefining processes. Specific emphasis is to develop strategies for biorefineries located in the Western United States by using regionally-specific feedstocks and crops, including sorghum, almond byproducts, citrus juicing wastes, pomace, municipal solid wastes (MSW), and food processing wastes. These feedstocks will be converted into biofuels, bioenergy and fine chemicals. Objective 1: Develop commercially-viable technologies for converting agriculturally-derived biomass, crop residues, biogas, and underutilized waste streams into marketable chemicals. Research on converting biogas will involve significant collaboration with one or more industrial partners. Sub-objective 1A: Provide data and process models for integrated biorefineries that utilize sorghum and available solid waste to produce ethanol, biogas and commercially-viable coproducts. Sub-objective 1B. Convert biogas from biorefining processes into polyhydroxyalkanoate plastics. Sub-objective 1C: Apply the latest tools in immobilized enzymes, nano-assemblies, to convert biomass to fermentable sugars, formaldehyde, and other fine chemicals. Objective 2: Develop commercially-viable fractionation, separation, de-construction, recovery and conversion technologies that enable the production of marketable products and co-products from the byproducts of large-scale food production and processing. Sub-objective 2A: Add value to almond byproducts. Sub-objective 2B: Apply bioenegineering of bacteria and yeast to produce diacids, ascorbic acid and other value-added products from pectin-rich citrus peel waste. Sub-objective 2C: Convert biomass into commercially-viable designer oligosaccharides using combinatorial enzyme technology. |
| Developing Technologies that Enable Growth and Profitability in the Commercial Conversion of Sugarcane, Sweet Sorghum, and Energy Beets into Sugar, Advanced Biofuels, and Bioproducts | 0426599 | 09/22/2014 | 09/02/2019 | ACTIVE | New Orleans | SUGARCANE, SWEET, SORGHUM, ENERGY, BEET, SUGAR, PRODUCTION, BIOFUELS, BIOPRODUCTS | Not applicable | The overall objective of this project is to enhance the value of sugarcane, sweet sorghum, and energy beets, and their major commercial products sugar, biofuel and bioproducts, by improving postharvest quality and processing. Specific objectives are: 1. Develop commercially-viable technologies that reduce or eliminate undesirable effects of starch and color on sugar processing/refining efficiency and end-product quality. 2. Develop commercially-viable technologies that reduce or eliminate undesirable effects of high viscosity on sugar processing/refining efficiency and end-product quality. 3. Develop commercially-viable technologies to increase the stability and lengthen storage of sugar feedstocks for the manufacture of sugars, advanced biofuels, and bioproducts. 4. Develop commercially-viable technologies for the biorefining of sugar crop feedstocks into advanced biofuels and bioproducts. 5. Identify and characterize field sugar crop quality traits that affect sugar crop refining/biorefining efficiency and end-product quality, and collaborate with plant breeders in the development of new cultivars/hybrids to optimize desirable quality traits. 6. Develop, in collaboration with commercial partners, technologies to improve the efficiency and profitability of U.S. sugar manufacturing and enable the commercial production of marketable products from residues (e.g. , bagasse, trash) and by-product streams (e.g., low purity juices) associated with postharvest sugar crop processing. Please see Project Plan for all listed Sub-objectives. |
| Integration of Site-Specific Crop Production Practices and Industrial and Animal Agricultural Byproducts to Improve Agricultural Competitiveness and Sustainability | 0425032 | 10/01/2013 | 09/30/2018 | ACTIVE | MISSISSIPPI STATE | PRECISION, FARMING, GEOGRAPHIC, INFORMATION, SYSTEM, (GIS), REMOTE, SENSING, (RS), WATER, SWINE, ANIMAL, WASTE, AMMONIA, SOIL, NUTRIENTS, PATHOGEN, NITROGEN, LITTER, LEACHING, CROPS, RUNOFF, BACTERIA, BROILER | Not applicable | Obj 1. Develop ecological and sustainable site-specific agriculture systems, for cotton, corn, wheat, and soybean rotations. 1: Geographical coordinates constitutes necessary and sufficient cornerstone required to define, develop and implement ecological/sustainable agricultural systems. 2: Develop methods of variable-rate manure application based on soil organic matter (SOM), apparent electrical conductivity, elevation, or crop yield maps. 3: Relate SOM, electrical conductivity, and elevation. Obj 2. Develop sustainable and scalable practices for site-specific integration of animal agriculture byproducts to improve food, feed, fiber, and feedstock production systems. 1: Quantify effects of management on sustainability for sweet potato. 2: Balance soil phosphorus (P)/micro¿nutrients using broiler litter/flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum. 3: Effects of site-specific broiler litter applications. 4: Manure application/crop management practices in southern U.S. 5: Compare banded/broadcast litter applications in corn. 6: Develop reflectance algorithms for potassium in wheat. 7: Determine swine mortality compost value in small farm vegetable production. Obj 3. Analyze the economics of production practices for site-specific integration of animal agriculture byproducts to identify practices that are economically sustainable, scalable, and that increase competitiveness and profitability of production systems. 1: Evaluate economics of on-farm resource utilization in the south. Obj 4. Determine the environmental effects in soil, water, and air from site-specific integration of animal agricultural and industrial byproducts into production practices to estimate risks and benefits from byproduct nutrients, microbes, and management practices. 1: Quantitatively determine bioaerosol transport. 2: Role of P and nitrogen (N) immobilizing agents in corn production. 3: Assess impact of management on water sources. 4: Impact of FGD gypsum/rainfall on mobilization of organic carbon/veterinary pharmaceutical compounds in runoff/leached water. 5: Assess soil microbial ecology, antibiotic resistance, and pathogen changes using manure and industrial byproducts in crop production systems. 6: Develop nutrient management practices for sustainable crop production. 7: Develop nutrient management practices for reclaimed coal mine soils. 8: Determine effects of poultry litter/swine lagoon effluent in swine mortality composts. 9: Determine survival of fecal bacterial pathogens on contaminated plant tissue. 10: Identify agricultural/industrial byproducts that modify the breakdown of organic matter. Obj 5. Integrate research data into regional and national databases and statistical models to improve competitiveness and sustainability of farming practices. 1: Develop broiler house emission models. 2: Apply quantitative microbial risk assessment models to animal agriculture/anthropogenic activities. Obj 6. Develop statistical approaches to integrate and analyze large and diverse spatial and temporal geo-referenced data sets derived from crop production systems that include ecological and natural resource based inputs. 1: Develop novel methods of imaging processing. |
| On-farm Biomass Processing: Towards an Integrated High Solids Transporting/Storing/Processing System (UKRF Subaward No. 3048109826-13-061) | 0423960 | 07/01/2012 | 06/30/2016 | ACTIVE | LEXINGTON | BIOMASS, SWITCHGRASS, DOE, BIO-ENERGY | Not applicable | 1. Demonstrate and test a universal bio-energy crop single-pass harvesting system applicable to agricultural residues (corn stover, wheat straw), switchgrass, and miscanthus with bale densities at or above 210 kg/m3 with appropriate best management practices for sustainable biomass harvest. 2. Demonstrate the technical feasibility of on-farm storage and processing of high density bio-energy crops to enhance biomass conversion to value added products using a solid substrate fungal cultivation followed by a percolating anaerobic fermentation with recycle. 3. Develop and validate integrated geographic information system (GIS)-based economic and life cycle analysis models for the proposed on-farm processing system, and use these models to evaluate different landscape-scale management scenarios on food and energy production and the environment. Determine the incentives required to increase carbon sequestration and bioenergy production when they conflict with maximum farm profitability. |
| CONTROL OF HUMAN PATHOGENS ASSOCIATED WITH ACIDIFIED PRODUCE FOODS | 0420825 | 12/02/2010 | 10/27/2015 | COMPLETE | RALEIGH | ESCHERICHIA, COLI, O157:H7, SALMONELLA, ACID, FOOD, CUCUMBER, ORGANIC, ACID, CUCUMIS, SATIVUS, BENZOIC, ACID, ACETIC, ACID, MALIC, ACID, ANAEROBIC, ACID, RESISTANCE, LISTERIA, MONOCYTOGENES, PICKLED, VEGETABLE, ACIDIFIED, FOOD, PEPPER, CAPSICUM, ANNUM, PRESERVATIVE, SORBIC, ACID, LACTIC, ACID, OXYGEN, AEROBIC, ACID-TOLERANT, PATHOGEN | Not applicable | 1. To define conditions to assure a 5 log reduction of acid tolerant pathogens in refrigerated or bulk stored acidified vegetables. 2. To determine how the metabolism of Escherichia coli O157:H7 (internal pH, membrane potential, ion concentrations, and cell metabolites) are affected as cells are exposed to organic acid and salt conditions typical of acidified foods. 3. To determine the survival of E. coli O157:H7 in commercial fermentation brines, with and without competing microflora, and under a variety of extrinsic and intrinsic conditions. |
| ECOLOGY, MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WEEDY AND INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES IN A CHANGING CLIMATE | 0420487 | 10/01/2010 | 09/30/2015 | COMPLETE | Urbana | WEEDS, MICROORGANISMS, BIODEGRADATION, MISCANTHUS, SWEET, CORN, SOYBEANS, SOIL, NITROGEN, CYCLING, CLIMATE, CHANGE | Not applicable | Objective 1: Measure effects of management, climate, and soil conditions on microbial processes (herbicide degradation, nitrogen cycling, and weed seedbank dynamics) in corn/soybean ecosystems. Objective 2: Evaluate the effects of management and climate change on the biology and ecology of weedy and invasive species, including potential weedy cellulosic bioenergy crops, in Midwestern cropping systems. Objective 3: Identify effective combinations of weed management components through application of both new and existing knowledge that exploit useful plant and environmental interactions in vegetable cropping systems. |
| Efficient Management and Use of Animal Manure to Protect Human Health and Environmental Quality | 0420394 | 10/01/2010 | 09/30/2015 | COMPLETE | BOWLING GREEN | ANIMAL, MANURE, ODOR, NUTRIENT, BYPRODUCT, ATMOSPHERIC, EMISSIONS, KARST, TOPOGRAPHY, PATHOGEN, TREATMENT, TECHNOLOGY, MICROORGANISMS | Not applicable | The overall goal of the research project which is formulated as a real partnership between ARS and Western Kentucky University (WKU) is to conduct cost effective and problem solving research associated with animal waste management. The research will evaluate management practices and treatment strategies that protect water quality, reduce atmospheric emissions, and control pathogens at the animal production facilities, manure storage areas, and field application sites, particularly for the karst topography. This Project Plan is a unique situation in the sense that non-ARS scientists from WKU are included on an in-house project to conduct research under the NP 214. The objectives and related specific sub-objectives for the next 5 years are organized according to the Components (Nutrient, Emission, Pathogen, and Byproduct) of the NP 214, which mostly apply to this project as follows: 1) develop improved best management practices, application technologies, and decision support systems for poultry and livestock manure used in crop production; 2) develop methods to identify and quantify emissions, from poultry, dairy and swine rearing operations and manure applied lands; 3) reduce ammonia, odors, microorganisms and particulate emissions from dairy, swine and poultry operations through the use of treatment systems (e.g. biofilters and scrubbers) and innovative management practices; 4) perform runoff and leaching experiments on a variety of soils amended with dairy, swine, or poultry manures infected with Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni), Salmonella sp. or Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) and compare observed transport with that observed for common indicator organisms such as E. coli, enterococci, and Bacteriodes; and 5) use molecular-based methodologies to quantify the occurrence of pathogens and evaluate new methods to inhibit their survival and transport in soil, water, and waste treatment systems. |
| Innovative Bioresource Management Technologies for Enhanced Environmental Quality and Value Optimization | 0420348 | 10/01/2010 | 09/30/2015 | COMPLETE | FLORENCE | ANIMAL, WATER, PHOSPHORUS, TRACE, AMMONIA, DENITRIFICATION, REMOVAL, REDOX, OXYGEN, WETLAND, WASTE, QUALITY, NITROGEN, NITRIFICATION, SOLIDS, POTENTIAL, PLANTS, TREATMENT, CARBON, BIOCHAR, PYROLYSIS, ANAMMOX, GENES, AMENDMENT, FERTILIZER, EMISSIONS, GAS, NITROUS, OXIDE | Not applicable | 1. Develop improved treatment technologies to better manage manure from swine, poultry and dairy operations to reduce releases to the environment of odors, pathogens, ammonia, and greenhouse gases as well as to maximize nutrient recovery. 2. Develop renewable energy via thermochemical technologies and practices for improved conversion of manure into heat, power, biofuels, and biochars. 3. Develop guidelines to minimize nitrous oxide emissions from poultry and swine manure-impacted riparian buffers and treatment wetlands. 4. Develop beneficial uses of manure treatment technology byproducts. |
| BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF MANURE AND ORGANIC RESIDUALS TO CAPTURE NUTRIENTS AND TRANSFORM CONTAMINANTS | 0420063 | 04/03/2010 | 04/02/2015 | COMPLETE | BELTSVILLE | SWINE, WASTE, SOIL, POULTRY, MANAGEMENT, DAIRY, EMMISION, MANURE, TREATMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL, BYPRODUCTS, FATE, ORGANIC, BIOENERGY, COMPOST, RESIDUE, DESTRUCTION, NUTRIENTS, APPLICATIONS, ANAEROBIC, DIGESTION, ALGAL, METHANE, AMMONIA, ANTIBIOTIC | Not applicable | Development and evaluation of manure treatment systems. Specific objectives: (1) Develop treatment technologies and management practices to reduce the concentrations of pharmaceutically active compounds (antibiotics and natural hormones) in manures, litters, and biosolids utilized in agricultural settings; (2) Develop management practices and technologies to minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from manure and litter storage and from composting operations by manipulating the biological, chemical, and physical processes influencing production and release of ammonia and greenhouse gases during composting; (3) Develop technology and management practices that improve the economics and treatment efficiency of anaerobic digestion of animal manures and other organic feedstocks (e.g. food wastes, crops/residues) for waste treatment and energy production. |
| Management of Manure Nutrients, Environmental Contaminants, and Energy From Cattle and Swine Production Facilities | 0420053 | 10/01/2010 | 09/30/2015 | COMPLETE | CLAY CENTER | FEEDLOT, SURFACING, MATERIAL, BEEF, MONOSLOPE, FACILITIES, ANAEROBIC, DIGESTION, ENERGY, RECOVERY, COAL-ASH, WDGS, GREENHOUSE, GASES, AIR, QUALITY, PATHOGENS | Not applicable | Obj.1: Develop precision techniques or other methods for the characterization and harvesting of feedlot manure packs in order to maximize nutrient and energy value and minimize environmental risk. Obj.2: Determine the fate and transport of antibiotics (e.g., monensin and tetracyclines) and pathogens (e.g., E.coli O157:H7 and Salmonella and Campylobacter) in beef cattle and swine facilities. Obj.3: Quantify and characterize air emissions from beef cattle and swine facilities to evaluate and improve management practices. Obj.4: Determine the risk and benefits of using coal-ash and other industrial byproducts as a component of surfacing material for feedlot pens. |
| BIOREFINING PROCESSES | 0418775 | 11/16/2009 | 09/30/2014 | COMPLETE | ALBANY | BIOFUELS, EFFICIENCY, SEPARATION, CORN, MOLECULAR, ENZYMES, WHEAT, SORGHUM, PROTEIN, FERMENTATION, ENERGY, ETHANOL, STARCH, ALCOHOL, EVOLUTION, BIOREFINERY, REFINING | Not applicable | Objective 1: Develop enzyme-based technologies (based on cleaving specific covalent crosslinks which underlie plant cell wall recalcitrance) thereby enabling new commercially-viable* saccharification processes. Objective 2: Develop new enzyme-based technologies that enable the production of commercially-viable* coproducts such as specialty chemicals, polymer precursors, and nutritional additives/supplements from raw or pretreated lignocellulosic biomass. Objective 3: Develop pretreatment technologies that enable commercially-viable* biorefineries capable of utilizing diverse feedstocks such as rice straw, wheat straw, commingled wastes (including MSW), sorghum, switchgrass, algae, and food processing by-products. Objective 4: Develop new separation technologies that enable commercially-viable* and energy-efficient processes for the recovery of biofuels, biorefinery co-products, and/or bioproducts from dilute fermentation broths. |
| SUSTAINABLE CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR IRRIGATED SPECIALTY CROPS AND BIOFUELS | 0414693 | 09/12/2008 | 09/11/2013 | COMPLETE | PROSSER | BEST, MANAGEMENT, PRACTICES, CARBON, SEQUESTRATION, SOIL, QUALITY, REDUCED, TILLAGE, COVER, CROPS, BIOFUEL, FEEDSTOCK, BIOFUEL, BYPRODUCTS, WATER, QUALITY, DECISION, SUPPORT, SYSTEMS | Not applicable | Objective 1: Identify optimal strategies for incorporating bioenergy crops into irrigated Pacific Northwest Region cropping systems. ¿ Sub-objective 1.A. Evaluate the impacts of harvest of C3 and C4 grass perennial biomass crops and the removal of crop residues on carbon sequestration, nutrient dynamics, and soil quality in irrigated Pacific Northwest crop rotations. ¿ Sub-objective 1.B. Determine the efficacy of co-products from agricultural-based energy production on weed and disease control and soil fertility improvement in irrigated crop production systems. Objective 2. Identify optimal combinations of management practices to lower total production costs while maintaining market quality of irrigated potato-based production systems. ¿ Sub-objective 2.A. Determine the impact of reduced tillage on soil conservation/erosion soil physical properties, the mechanisms controlling carbon and nitrogen cycling, and trace gas (CO2, N2O, CH4) fluxes and C sequestration and the yield and quality response of potato and rotational crops. ¿ Sub-objective 2.B. Evaluate the effects of deficit irrigation practices on potato yield and tuber quality. ¿ Sub-objective 2.C. Validate the ARS Potato Growth Simulation Model for the irrigated inland Pacific Northwest region. Objective 3. Develop ecologically-based management strategies that enhance vegetable yields and soil quality in irrigated organic production systems. ¿ Sub-objective 3.A. Quantify key soil agroecological processes (carbon and nitrogen cycling) and application rates of organic amendments that optimize physiological development (nitrogen capture, plant growth rate) of potato under irrigated organic cropping systems. ¿ Sub-objective 3.B. Integrate hybrids with weed suppressive traits into organic specialty crop production systems. |
| INNOVATIVE ANIMAL MANURE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENHANCED ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY | 0409671 | 04/03/2005 | 04/02/2010 | COMPLETE | FLORENCE | ANIMAL, WASTE, WATER, QUALITY, PHOSPHORUS, NITROGEN, TRACE, ELEMENTS, AMMONIA, NITRIFICATION, DENITRIFICATION, SOLIDS, REMOVAL, WETLANDS, REDOX, POTENTIAL, OXYGEN, BOD, WETLAND, PLANTS | Not applicable | Develop and evaluate environmentally superior technologies to prevent off-farm release of nutrients and to reduce pathogens, odors, and ammonia emissions. Develop information and technologies to enhance or retrofit existing manure treatment systems to help producers meet environmental criteria (nutrients, emissions, and pathogens). Improve and refine constructed natural treatment technologies to effectively manage nutrients including reducing emissions of ammonia and nitrous oxide. Develop and evaluate new and improved technologies that concentrate/sequester nutrients from manures or create value added products including conversion of livestock waste to energy. Evaluate swine wastewater treatment systems that can be used to reduce emissions, manage nutrients, and control pathogens on small farms. Develop cooperative activities as needed to conduct the research. |
| VALUE-ADDED PRODUCTS FROM FORAGES AND BIOMASS ENERGY CROPS | 0408533 | 06/04/2004 | 06/03/2009 | COMPLETE | MADISON | ENZYMES, FRACTIONATION, FERMENTATION, ADHESIVES, GLYCOCALYX, HARVESTING, ALFALFA, GERMPLASM, RESIDUES, BIOENERGY, COMPOSITES, VALUE-ADDED, SWITCHGRASS | Not applicable | 1. Develop harvesting, fractionation and storage processes for forages and bioenergy crops that are economical, and that retain product quality. 2. Identify specific varieties of energy crops that display maximum fermentability when grown at specific locations under defined environmental conditions. 3. Develop switchgrass germplasm having broad adaptation to the northern USA and improved fermentability for conversion to value-added products. 4. Develop and improve fermentations for direct bioconversion of cellulosic biomass to value-added products (viz., ethanol, chemical feedstocks and novel bioadhesive components). |
| BIOPROCESS AND METABOLIC ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIES FOR BIOFUELS AND VALUE-ADDED COPRODUCTS | 0403945 | 12/15/2000 | 08/08/2004 | COMPLETE | PEORIA | value added, fermentation, conversion, biomass, crop residues, plant fibers, corn, xylans, cellulose, genetic engineering, biotechnology, enzyme production, fuel, ethanol, butane diol, lactic acid, enzymes, microorganisms, energy, optimization, systems development, new technology | Not applicable | Develop pretreatment, enzyme, and fermentation technologies for the conversion of corn fiber and other agricultural substrates into biofuels (e.g., ethanol, butanol) and value-added fermentation products (e.g., enzymes, polysaccharides, lactic acid). |
| VALUE-ADDED PRODUCTS FROM PLANT MATERIALS | 0402375 | 10/01/1999 | 06/02/2004 | COMPLETE | MADISON | manures, alfalfa, value added, agricultural engineering, non food commodities, forage legumes, plant enzymes, transgenic plants, fractionation, fermentation, adhesives, energy sources, composites, glycocalyx, filtration, product development, product evaluation, industrial uses, construction materials, phytases, plant fibers, saccharification | Not applicable | 1. Develop methods for harvesting forages and other cellulosic materials that retain feedstock qualtiy. 2. Develop methods to assess the energy feedstock quality of herbaceous biomass crops. 3. Develop low-cost, user-friendly assessment and processing technologies for biomass producers and processors. 4. Develop varieties of switchgrass adapted to the northern USA. 5. Develop technologies for processing and converting biomass materials to value-added products, including fuels, industrial chemicals, and enzymes. |
| Renewable energy systems to improve small farm sustainability | 0231634 | 07/20/2012 | 09/30/2016 | COMPLETE | CLEMSON | alternative energy, anaerobic digestion, black soldier fly digestion, farm, passive solar greenhouse heating, waste bioconversion | Increasing consumer demand for locally-grown produce in South Carolina and the region has created significant economic opportunities for small-scale growers through direct and wholesale marketing. However, with limited available resources producers need to find ways to reduce operating costs and identify new sources of revenue to give them a competitive edge in the marketplace. On-farm bioenergy production can help to offset the increasing costs of petroleum based fuels and fertilizers and improve farm profitability. Furthermore, compared to petroleum-based energy, bioenergy can reduce carbon dioxide emissions through its role in the carbon cycle. There are many ways to turn biological materials into energy and to reduce on-farm energy costs, although at present only a few represent practical and cost-effective options for small, limited resource farming operations. To our knowledge very few studies have been done in South Carolina to develop, demonstrate and evaluate renewable and sustainable energy systems for small farms as described below. This study will evaluate three energy systems for small farms; anaerobic digestion of waste for production of biogas, black soldier fly digestion of waste for production of compost and other value added products, and hydronic and passive solar greenhouse heating systems. Outputs from the project will include information on critical operating parameters for scale appropriate anaerobic digester and black soldier fly composting systems to be built at the Clemson Organic Farm. System costs and the value of energy savings and value-added products will be determined. Installation and operating costs and energy savings provided by the passive solar and hydronic heating systems will be quantified, and the systems will be evaluated for season extension vegetable production. The pilot systems will also be available for demonstration and training purposes. Information gained from design, construction and operation of the different systems will be utilized in development of recommendations to farmers interested in implementing the systems to reduce energy costs and increase farm profitability. The projected impact of the project will be to help farmers increase energy self-reliance and reduce their energy costs, and to provide them with information on how to create value-added products through bioconversion of waste materials. | The goal of the proposed research will be to help farmers increase energy self-reliance and reduce their energy costs, and to provide them with information on how to create value-added products through bioconversion of waste materials. Objectives: 1. Design, build and evaluate a scale-appropriate anaerobic digester system to generate biogas to provide supplemental greenhouse heating and to refrigerate the walk-in cooler at the Clemson Organic Farm. 2. Design, build and evaluate a Black Soldier Fly composting system at the Clemson Organic Farm for bioconversion of food and farm waste into compost, animal feed, and oil for biodiesel fuel production. 3. Compare the costs and energy savings of hydronic heating and passive solar components with conventional greenhouse heating systems for season extension vegetable production at the Clemson Organic Farm. |
| Bioenergy and Biofuels Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass via Anaerobic Digestion and Fisher-Tropsch Reaction | 0231118 | 09/01/2012 | 08/31/2017 | COMPLETE | Columbus | Lignocellulosic biomass, anaerobic digestion, biogas, digestate, dry fermentation, lignocellulosic biomass, liquid hydrocarbon fuels, solid state | Integrated anaerobic digestion system (iADs) is an Ohio State University (OSU) patent technology (WO/2011/020000) that combines solid state anaerobic digestion (SS-AD) with commercially available liquid anaerobic digestion (L-AD). This combination mitigates technical challenges associated with each alone, and creates synergistic benefits that reduce cost, improve efficiency, and increase biogas production from a wide range of feedstocks. The biogas in turn is converted into bioenergy and biofuels, while the SS-AD digestate can be used to enhance soil quality (closing an ecological loop). Here, we propose to optimize the SS-AD technology for biogas production from lignocellulosic biomass; develop the upstream and downstream logistics around the iADs; and assess the potential environmental, economic, and social benefits of iADs. Pilot scale SS-AD tests with different feedstocks will be performed to validate the lab scale results and provide the critical data necessary to convince our industrial collaborators to move this technology into the next stage of commercialization, namely, the demonstration phase (which is beyond the scope of this grant). To achieve the objectives of the proposal, we have assembled a multidisciplinary team of scientists in the areas of soil and carbon sequestration (Dr. Rattan Lal, OSU), feedstock supply logistics (Dr. Scott Shearer, OSU), feedstock logistics and process modeling (Dr. Sudhagar Mani, University of Georgia (UGA)), anaerobic digestion (Dr. Yebo Li, OSU), anaerobic biology (Dr. Z. T. Yu, OSU), catalyst synthesis (Dr. Fei Yu, Mississippi State University (MSU)), and LCA (Bhavik Bakshi, OSU). The team will work closely with industry collaborators including quasar energy group (quasar), American Electric Power (AEP), Aloterra Energy, Marathon, CNH, AgSTAR and others on this project. The outcomes of the proposed project include: (1) optimization of novel iADs technology using effluent of L-AD as inoculum and nitrogen source for SS-AD, with increased knowledge about the microbiome in the SS-AD process; (2) miscanthus and crop production with SS-AD digestate that leverages BCAP-funded Miscanthus production for development of Miscanthus feedstock logistics (planting, harvesting and storage systems); (3) restoration and soil quality enhancement of marginalized lands; (4) assessment of the carbon sequestration in soils, trees and wetlands, and of the magnitude by which gaseous emissions in biofuel production process can be off-set by net gains in the ecosystem carbon pool; (5) A flexible platform system for exploring innovative uses of AD products including testing the techno-economic feasibility of production of liquid hydrocarbon fuels from biogas; (6) Positive economic, environmental, and social impact of iADs. The impacts of the project include: (1) extension of the feedstocks of AD from animal manure to all kinds of organic waste; (2) production of liquid transportation fuels production from organic waste; (3) assessment of the net ecosystem carbon budget in biofuel production. | The long term goal of this project is to commercialize an integrated anaerobic digestion system (iADs) that promises cost competitive bioenergy and biofuels production from lignocellulosic biomass. The specific objectives of this proposal are to: (1)Develop a sustainable production and supply logistics system to provide multiple feedstocks to iADs for bioenergy and biofuels production; (2) Assess impacts of SS-AD digestate application to biofuel crops grown in marginal lands on soil quality and hydrological, microclimatic, and agronomic parameters; (3) Develop a pretreatment technology to increase lignocellulosic biomass digestibility and optimize SS-AD technologies to maximize biogas production; (4)Integrate feedstock supply chains with a pilot scale iADs to evaluate its potential for commercialization; (5) Develop a biogas to liquid hydrocarbon fuels (BTL) technology via catalytic reforming and Fisher-Tropsch (F-T) synthesis; (6) Use Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and process economic models to evaluate the proposed system performance and its environmental, economic, and social impacts on sustainability. |